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How to Write an Abstract
一、什么是摘要Abstract?
an abstract comprises one paragraph which describes the main content of a paper and appears at the very beginning of the paper.
摘要是叙述文章主要内容的一个段落，并且位于文章的开头部分。
摘要是以梗概形式呈现的一篇文章要点的总结，它强调了一篇文章所包含的重要的信息。它也可以帮助读者快速的了解到是否这篇文章是他们感兴趣的，是否他们需要来阅读整篇文章。而且，国家或国际出版社的编辑通常通过浏览投稿文章的摘要来决定是否投稿人的文章是可以被录用的。因此，对于学者和研究人员来说，写一份好的摘要至关重要。
二、写作Abstract的目的
对于科技论文的摘要，Abstract的目的有以下几点：
1.Introduce journal articles.
2.Inform readers about article`s content.
3.Help readers decide whether or not to read article.
4.Overview conference programs,abstract collections,and book chapters.
三、学习写作Abstract的必要性
1.Helps you present complex information in a clear,concise manner.
2.Helps you read abstracts more effectively.
3.Helps you conduct research.
4.Helps you write abstracts for future publications.
5.Helps you condense report information into a short format for database searches.
四、Abstract的写作要求
1.Use one or more well-developed paragraphs,which are
unified,coherent,concise,and able to stand alone（200-300 words).
2.Use an introduction-body conclusion structure in which the parts of the parts of the report are discussed in
order:purpose,researcquestions,method,findings,conclusions,recommendations.
3.Follows strictly the chronology of the report.
五、Abstract的分类
1.informative abstract 内容摘要
- the primary research objective or purpose
- method employed in solving the problems
- principal findings or results
- major conclusions and serves as a substitute for the full paper
2.descriptive abstract指示性摘要
outlines the topics covered in the paper and is like a table of contents in paragraph form.
六、Abstract的结构
1.Background – why do you want to do the research?
2.Research question – what question are you trying to answer and what is the research topic of your paper?
3.Method – how (what material, what method, and what procedures) do you get answers to your research question?
4.Results – what is your answer to the question?
5.Conclusions – what implications does the answer imply?
七、Abstract的特点
1.Concise – write everything relevant to the paper in as simple terms as possible.
2.Objective – states objectively the main points of the paper.
3.Consistent – be consistent with the other parts of the whole paper, and never include what has not been mentioned in the paper.
4.Complete – cover all the main points of the paper and be a miniature of the paper.【abstract怎么写,】
5.Brief – conveys in as few words as possible the essential information contained in the body of the paper.
八、Abstract的常用句式
1、介绍文章背景和目前研究的问题
(1) Although (the research subject)…, (the related problem)… is as yet
undetermined.
(2) (The research subject)…, however, (the related problem)… remains unsolved.
(3) (Previous studies) have examined…, (the related problem) is that…, despite…
(4) (Problems in certain research area) are…, yet (the present solution) has frequently been questioned because…
(5) This paper describes/presents… (the argument) within… (a theoretical context)
(6) While (the debate on certain research subject) seems to…, (the present agreement) is still problematic.
2、叙述研究目的
(1) This paper advances the view that…
(2) The article advocates/discusses/develops/focuses on/gives detailed explanation for/investigates into/proposes/holds that/…
(3) The purpose/intention of this paper is…
(4) The primary goal/aim of this research is…
(5) The overall objective of this study is…
(6) In this paper/study, we aim at…
(7) The work/investigation presented in this paper focuses on…
(8) This research is designed to determine/measure/evaluate…
(9) The author intends/attempts o outline the framework of/obtain some
knowledge of…
3、指出观察问题的视角
(1) … from the angle of…
(2) … in the light of the context that…
(3) To view something at a different angle/from various angles…
(4) From the point of view of…
(5) From the perspective of…
4、指出文章参与者
(1) The present study has investigated… by using/analyzing…
(participants/materials)
(2) In this study, we inquired/examined/evaluated… (participants/materials)
(3) The experiments/investigations of the present study involved…
(participants/materials)
5、研究方法和过程
(1) Detailed information has been acquired by the authors using..
(2）Several sets of experiments have been performed to test the validity of…
(3) The technique the author adopted is referred to as…
(4) The experiments consisted of four steps, which are described in…
(5) The method/approach used in the present study is…
(6) The experiment/investigation in the paper is conducted by adopting…
(7）The procedure the present study followed can be briefly described as…
(8) The experiment/study consisted of the following steps: …
(9) Included in the experiment were…
(10) Based on the idea that…, we conducted the present study, categorized…, and evaluated…
6、研究结果、发现、结论
(1) The results of the experiment indicate/suggest that…; it is also found that…
(2) The results are as follows: …
(3) The analysis of the samples indicates that..
(4) The data obtained seem to be very similar o those reported earlier by…
(5) It is concluded that..; the results also imply the further study into…
(6) The investigation/experiment varied by… and the results also revealed that…
(7) These findings of the research have led the author to the conclusion that…
(8) Based on/upon the outcome/findings of the research, …
(9) The data/results obtained appear to…, thus we may conclude that…
(10) As a result of the current experiments, we conclude that…
(11） The author points out/recommends/concludes that…
(12) In summing up it may be stated that…
(13) All the preliminary results throw light on the nature of…
(14) These findings of the research have naturally led the author to the conclusion that…
九、写一份摘要的步骤
（1) 在完成整篇论文之后再来起草你的摘要，因为这样你对文章所表达的观点和发现等才能有一个清楚的轮廓。
(2) 以行文相同的顺序来构架摘要。用关键句开头来陈述相关研究的主题表明文章的目的；之后继续简要的总结研究的方法，实验，步骤，调研，结果，分析和议论；最后以总结结论收尾。
由于论文所研究的主题不同，每种摘要都有其自身的特点。通常它按原文的顺序来构架，并且强调原文的基本要点。
February, 2012, Chinese Vice President Xi Jinping visited the United States. About forty years ago, U.S. President Nixon visited China, which achieved the normalization of Sino-U.S. diplomatic relations. Under this historical background, Xi’s visit has attracted many attentions all over the world. All the reports about his visit become important materials for future Sino-U.S. research.
Critical discourse analysis (CDA) or critical linguistics argues that language cannot be regarded as neural media of communication. On the contrary, critical linguists think that language actually is a product of social practice. From their points of view, language is closely connected with ideology, and should be studied in a social context.
Mainstream media can reflect the basic attitude of a society toward a certain news event, as well as the tendency of the development in political, economic and cultural aspects. Because of its strong public trust and authority, compared with other media, mainstream media is more suitable for researching how political news discourses influenced by governments and societies.
The study undertakes an analysis of coverage, from February 6 to 24, 2012 that cover Xi’s visit in People’s Daily, Guangming Daily, The New York Times and The Washington Post, in the framework of critical discourse analysis.
Abstract
This thesis makes a comparative study on the issue of English and Chinese ostensible invitations from a pragmatic perspective. In contrast to previous researches, this paper emphasizes the differences of ostensible invitations between English and Chinese speakers. Major contents for this study include phenomena of English and Chinese ostensible invitations and comparisons and contrasts between the two.
This thesis starts with a brief introduction to Austin and Searle’s Speech Act Theory, Grice’s Cooperative Principle, and some related theories on Context. Then through analyzing the data we collect from the two well-known novels The Forsyte Saga and Four Generations under One Roof, finally we find in our research the differences and similarities of English and Chinese ostensible invitations. We conduct a comparative study on them and discuss the reasons behind those distinctions. This research finds that English and Chinese ostensible invitations have differences in such aspects as frequency, attitude, uncertainty and position, and both have some common features of ostensible invitations, such as flouting the sincerity condition, using formula and etc.
After examining to existing literature, our findings indicate that this study is the first attempt to make a comparative study on English and Chinese ostensible invitations. It contributes new data and perspectives to the current studies in this area.
Keywords：ostensible invitations speech act theory cooperative principle context
Abstract
Based on Bachman’s (1990) Communicative Language Ability model and Hedge’s (2001) operational definition of CLA model, this present study intends to investigate the construct validity of PETS Writing Test from the perspective of task and test taker. To answer the research questions, both quantitative and qualitative approaches will be applied to analyze and discuss the task content and scoring criteria of PETS Writing Test, the questionnaire feedbacks, with a special focus on the test takers’ examination essays.
Content analyses of the PETS writing tasks and scoring criteria show that PEST Writing Test at different levels could assess the writing competence reflected in Hedge’s operational definition of CLA model to different extents, and there are significant differences among PETS Writing Test at the three levels studied (II, III, IV). Data obtained from the analysis of test takers’ response and performance in light of test score, time spent, and examination essay, further demonstrates the results of content analysis.
On the basis of the findings, this paper tentatively concludes PETS Writing Test is able to test communicative competence to a certain degree, and there are significant differences among tasks, scoring criteria, and test takers’ response and performance at different levels. Thus the study is of great importance to test development and improvement and provides empirical evidence for it. As an investigation of the construct validity of an influential test, this study aims to throw some light to both language testing and teaching practice and promote more relevant excellent studies.
Keywords：PETS Writing Test Construct Validity Content Analysis Test takers’ Performance
ABSTRACT
At the end of the nineteenth century, women were treated not as a figure subject to men but an individual. Women were portrayed either as a wife or a mother, that is, in relation to men; the autonomous self of a woman could not be found in those works. Women should be pure, innocent and submissive. Therefore, in that period, women always tried to find a way for freedom and equality in male-female relationships. One of the ways to soar women’s statue they chose was literature that could make people have correct understanding and have a great ripple effect. To feminist critics, The Awakening is considered kind of a bible of feminism literature by advocating a basic change in the social role of women and by giving them an equal place in society. The feministic aspects appear clearly in the heroine, Edna Pontellier who notably violates the modes of nineteenth-century American women’s behavior. Edna is awakened to herself as an individual in the society and resists the given roles and stereotypes of women, which is the role of self-sacrificing mother and wife. Kate Chopin explored the process of Edna’s awakening with the feministic theme of woman’s self-realization and autonomy. This thesis will examine from a feminist approach not only the theme but also the expressions of symbolism in The Awakening.
剖析SCI论文中Summary和Abstract的区别
放眼望去这个论题有什么好说的啊 ，直接拿本英文字典查下不就知道了，Abstract不就是摘要或文摘的意思吗，Summary的意思就是提要或简介。但是看事情是不能这样浅层话的，要挖掘他们的内在意义及区别，以下是笔者的个人体会，仅供参考。
先说摘要 （或文摘），也就是英文的 Abstract : 顾名思义，是一篇文章摘出来的要点。其强调的是对文字本身的概括，内容讲究的是对文章内容的高度压缩，不能夹带参考文献、图表。摘要（Abstract）写好了很不简单，原因是其对文数的限制比较严格。一般SCI英文论文摘要允许200 - 300字，很少有超过500字的。摘要不论是在书里还是论文中，都是放在文前。许多SCI期刊对摘要的格式有不同的要求，比如非结构摘要、结构摘要等。是出于出版形式的考虑，目的和本质是不变的。
再说提要（或简介），即英文的 Summary ： 既然称之为提要，即包含提炼和要点两个方面。在教科书和科技文献中，提要强调对研究课题内容的概括，比如实验研究的前景、目的、内容等方面的简述。提要对字数的要求比较灵活，可长可短。既可以广征博引、也可以图文并茂，。既可放在文前，也可以置于文后。和摘要 Abstract 相比，提要 Summary 更普及常用，不论是在学术界还是日常交流中都会经常出现，是个总结就可以称之为 Summary。
对于综述文章，个人以为，摘要（Abstract）和提要（Summary）之间的区别不是小了或是模糊不清了，而是更加明显了。综述文章要大量引用前人的成果和文献，篇幅比一般的论文长很多。
要写综述文章的提要（Summary），虽然对句式和语法也有要求，但比摘要容易，描述范围也大一些。比如综述文章的背景，构思的来龙去脉，以及采用的方法等等。篇幅可以比摘要长，形式也可以灵活掌握，比如加些图表甚至公式，有利于读者的理解和记忆。但是要写摘要（Abstract）对文字的精炼程度要求更高，一字千金。句式和用词都很讲究，要用简洁的描述，把文章所讲的内容概括给读者。
所以SCI论文要求的摘要（Abstract），不论是结构摘要还是非结构摘要，都不同于提要（Summary）。一旦弄明白两者间的区别，怎么写就是水到渠成的事了。至于写得好坏，有个循序渐进的过程。大多数人先把文章写好，再概括出摘要。当然，也有些情况下需要先写摘要，比如申请基金或提交意向书等。经常写文章的学者，在构思阶段，习惯写个提纲，其实就是提要的前身。
摘要（Abstract）
摘要(Abstract) 也成为内容提要，通常在学士论文中都必须附有摘要，其位置应放在论文的正文之前，对整个论文内容的概述。无论对专业读者还是对非专业读者而言，摘要都是一个非常重要的文件。 摘要如果和论文一起发表，则被称为一次性出版物摘要，主要用于帮助读者评价文章内容及其潜在作用，使读者不必阅读全文就可以了解论文的内容。除此之外，摘要也可以被单独收入文摘机构出版的摘要期刊如：生物学文摘（Biological Abstract）、化学文摘（Chemical Abstract）等、称为二次性出版物摘要。此类脱离论文独立成篇的摘要主要用于方便读者检索文献、收集信息，帮助研究者寻找新的研究领域。
一． 摘要的定义
摘要的英文术语：有两个词汇，一个是 abstract, 一个是 summary.
根据美国国家标准学会（American National Standard Institute）于1971年通过并颁布的《美国国家文摘写作标准》（American National Standard for Writing Abstracts）规定，Abstract 不应与 summary 混同。
Abstract 对一篇论文的主要内容以精炼的文字进行高度概括，使读者不必阅读全文即可了解论文内容，或者让读者对即将阅读的文章有思想准备，或者让读者判断是否有通读全文的必要。文中只对论文信息进行浓缩，而不加主观评论或解释，可以脱离原文而独立成篇。字数通常在100~150个词左右，更确切地说，约为原文长度的1% ~ 5%（有的杂志规定摘要平均为全文的3% ~ 5%）。现在越来越多的用法是 abstract. 尤其是放在索引资料中一律要用 abstract 这个术语，在论文的题目下也通常要用这个词。
Summary (概要) 与 abstract 无明显差别。严格地说，summary 一般附在论文的后面，对论文的主要结论和成果进行再叙述。其前提是读者已经通读过全文，通过 summary 来巩固论文的主要论点和成果。在某些论文中，用 summary 取代正文中的 conclusion 部分。 Summary 是论文的“缩影”，可以概括论文的全部内容，只是在删繁就简上下功夫，字数长短不一，少则两三句话，多则500个单词甚至更长。美国的一些高等学校规定，硕士论文提要（summary）以250词左右为宜，而博士论文题要以350词左右为宜。国际会议论文的提要一般规定为300 ~ 500 词或 1000 个印刷符号。
至于究竟要采用什么形式，要根据征稿而定。一般说来，国际学术会议论文及要求按 Summary 方式来写摘要，而正式出版发行的刊物要修不尽一致。对于个别论文还见有前面为 Abstract, 结尾又有一个Summary , 这多半是由于文章过长，内容有多，后面的 Summary 相当于该文的缩写。
二． 摘要的种类
摘要分为两类，一类是说明性摘要（Descriptive/ Indicative Abstract），一类是资料性（Informative Abstract）摘要。
1. 说明性摘要 （Descriptive / Indicative Abstract）
如同迈克尔.艾利 （Michael Alley）所说，“一篇说明性摘要是段落形式的目录，使读者手中的一份简要地图。”从这句话中可以清楚地了解说明性摘要的作用。说明性摘要指向读者指出论文的主要议题是什么，不涉及具体的研究方法和结果，但无法给读者提供更多的详细信息。它一般是用于综述性文章，也用于讨论、评论性文章，尤以介绍某学科近期发展动态的论文居多，常出现“… is studied”、 “…is discussed” 字样。时态多用现在时或现在完成时。其篇幅也较短，大多在100 ~ 150 字之间。以下是一篇说明性摘要的样例。
Ten widespread diseases that are hazards in isolated construction camps can be prevented by removing or destroying the breeding places of flies, mosquitoes and rats, and by killing their adult forms.
由于说明性摘要仅限于陈述论文的主要论题且篇幅较小，主要用于评述性的论文。
2. 资料性摘要 （Informative Abstract）
资料性摘要的优点是比说明性摘要能提供多的多的信息，它应该尽量完整和准确地体现原文的具体内容，特别强调指出研究的方法和结果、结论等。其篇幅较长，大多在150 ~250 字之间。根据原文长度，也有多达500字的。通常，这类的摘要反映了论文的基本面貌，能够代替阅读论文全文。
Ten widespread diseases that are hazards in isolated construction camps can be prevented by removing or destroying the breeding places of flies, mosquitoes and rats, and by killing their adult forms. The breeding of flies is controlled by proper disposal of decaying organic matter, and of mosquitoes by destroying or draining pools, or spraying them with oil. For rats, only the indirect methods of rat-resistant houses and protected food supplies are valuable. Control of adult forms of both insects and rodens requires use of poisons. Screens are used for insects. Minnows can be planted to eat mosquito larvae.
三． 如何写摘要
1. 摘要的位置
摘要的位置是确定的，一般在作者工作单位的下方。如：
Cultural Differences Between China and U.S.A (标题)
Xu Ying （署名）
Hunan University (Changsha, Hunan, 410082) (工作单位)
Abstract: (摘要) Key words: (关键词)
2. 写作要点
（1） 长度：有专家认为150 ~ 200 个词之间；文章长度的五分之一。
有些刊物会规定摘要的篇幅不能超过一定的字数，如：在80 ~ 100 之间，在投稿前应查询。 若刊物没有规定长度时，可以参阅已发表的文章长度。
参加国际会议的论文摘要有字数限制，一般要求200 ~ 500 个词之间，约1000个印刷符号。 （美国化学文献、医学文献的论文摘要规定在200个词以内） （2） 不要重复论文中的句子。 （3） 避免列举大堆数据
（4） 一般只是一个段落，不要将其分为数段。 （5） 不要使用祈使句、感叹句、公式、表格等。 （6） 完成论文后在写摘要。 （7） 一般使用第三人称或被动语态。 （8） 语言需简明扼要。
下面请看一段论文摘要：
This paper deals with the English syllabus for graduate students in China. The paper first reviews the history of the graduate English teaching, then discusses the shortcomings in the syllabus and finally proposes some suggestions for its revision.
Key words: syllabus, graduate English teaching
阅读下面文章，然后写出一段80个词左右的摘要。
These days, there is a common belief among parents that schools are no longer taking any notice of students’ spelling. But, no school I have taught in has ever ignored spelling or considered it unimportant as a basic skill. There are, however, vastly different ideas about how to teach it, or how much importance it must be given over general language development and writing ability. The problem is, how to encourage a child to express himself freely and confidently in writing without holding him back with the complexities of spelling. If spelling becomes the only focal point of his teacher’s interest, clearly a bright child will be likely to “play safe”. He will tend to write only words within his spelling range, choose to avoid adventurous language. That’s why teachers often encourage the early use of dictionaries and pay attention to content rather than technical ability.
I was once shocked to read on the bottom of a sensitive piece of writing about a personal experience. “This work is terrible! There are too many spelling errors and your writing is hard to read.” It may have been a sharp criticism of the pupil’s technical abilities in writing, but it was a sad remark from the teacher who had omitted to read the essay, which contained some beautiful expressions of the child’s deep feelings. The teacher was not wrong to draw attention to the errors, but if his attention had centered on the child’s ideas, an expression of his disappointment with the presentation would have given the pupil more motivation to seek improvement.
三．摘要的内容
摘要的写作必须准确、明晰、简洁，概述与细节之间需要相互平衡、相互补充。内容取舍的标准首先是对论文本身重点的理解，其次应该考虑到读者阅读的方式。资料性摘要的内容通常包括：
1. 背景知识或文献回顾 （Background Information / Literature Review） 2. 研究的主要目的和范围 （Principal Purpose） 3. 研究方法 （Methodology） 4. 研究的主要结果 （Results）
5. 结论和建议 （Conclusions and Recommendation）
例1：
This article discusses some possible roles for self-access pathways, particularly in cultures which have no tradition of self-study. It suggests how pathways might influence the design and running of self-access centres, and gives an illustration of how pathways were designed and employed in a centre in China. Feedback is based on a mini-survey distributed to thirty users.
(ELT Journal Vol.51/1 January 1997 Oxford Univ. Press, 1997)
例2：
The science taught in the classroom should be resonable up-to-date. What is taught should place emphasis first on the principles and major concepts of science rather than on the applications of scientific knowledge. The instructional techniques comprise laboratory work which is introduced in such a manner as to emphasize science as a process ----- to reveal through practice that science involves inquiry, discovery, and experimentation. The paper suggests that college science programs should be revised with view to preparing teachers to handle science in secondary and elementary schools.
四． 常用表达方式描述目的、介绍相关知识
描述观察角度：
a. … from the angle of …
b. … in the light of the contex that …
c. To view something at a different angle / from various angles d. From the point of view of … e. From the perspective of … 描绘方法：
a. Detailed information has been acquired by the authors using … b. This is a theory based on the idea that …【abstract怎么写,】
c. Several sets of experiments have been performed to test the validity of … d. The method used in our study is known as … e. The technique the author adopted is referred to as … f. The approach taken in the investigation is called …
g. The experiments consisted of four steps, which are described in … 描述结果：
a. The results show / indicate that … b. The results are as follows:
c. The analysis of the samples indicates that … d. We found that …
e. Data suggested (表明，暗示) that … (从句中不用虚拟语气) f. It is shown that …
g.
h. the author
Text 4
Security Benefits of Cloud Computing【abstract怎么写,】
Abstract: Today, we can easily notice how the nature of the internet is changing from a place used to read web pages to an environment that allows the users to run software applications.Nowadays, with the development of web page ,the newest web page has up to web pages 3.0,also called the intelligent web ,which is the next stage of the internet evolution. the cloud means the internet .the term is derived from the way in which the internet is often represented into the network diagrams .the current cloud computing
architecture involves the existence of the data centers that are able to provide services to the clients located al overthe world. the main advantages of the cloud computing are the following :there is no need to download or install a specific software and update the local system, users or clients don’t afraid to the computing crashing, because everything is stored into cloud .the cost is low or even free ,like mobile phone or PDAs. the cloud
computing can be used .but everything has its short leg ,there are some disadvantages as well, like :it is hard to integrate with the existing in-house infrastructure .there are not
enough major suppliers in this field and so on.Some major Security benefits for individuals or companies, like the following: centralizing data storage ,increasing uncertainty,
virtualization allows a rapid replacement of compromised server located into the cloud without major costs or damages .Today ,the information infrastructure is moving faster to a simple but very innovative concept called cloud computing. the cloud computing is potentially able to offer major security benefits.
Key words :security ,cloud computing, advantages, benefits
云计算的安全优势
摘要：今天，我们可以很容易发现如何在互联网的本质是从用于读取网页到一个环境，使用户能够运行应用软件的地方改变。
如今，随着网页的发展，最新的网页有多达网页3.0 ，也称为智能网，它是互联网演进的下一阶段。云是指互联网。这个词是从在互联网上通常表示成网络图的方式获得。目前的云计算架构涉及到能够给客户提供服务的数据中心的存在，位于人在世界。云计算的主要优势有以下几点：无需下载或安装一个特定的软件和更新本地系统，用户或客户端不害怕的计算崩溃，因为一切都被存储到云计算的成本低甚至免费，如移动电话或PDA。 ，云计算可以使用，但任何事物都有它的腿短，也有一些缺点，如：它是很难与现有的内部基础设施的整合没有足够的主要供应商在这一领域等。
为个人或公司，如以下一些主要的安全优势：数据集中存储，不确定性增加，虚拟化技术允许快速更换定位成云无重大费用或损失被攻陷服务器的今天，信息基础设施正在快速地简单，但。非常创新的概念，叫做云计算。云计算是潜在的能够提供重大的安全利益。 关键词：安全，云计算，优点，好处
Text 8
How Nanotechnology Works
Abstract:
At the begin of this article,it states that there are unprecedented multidisciplinary convergence scientists dedicated to the study of a world so small that we can’t see it—even with a light microscope and tells us the important of nanotechnology.Then in order to understand the unusual world of nanotechnology ,we need to get an idea of the units of measure involved.The long of one nanometer is so small.When we measure the atomic scale,we can find that it’s still small compare to the nannmeter.But in a lecture called “Small Wonders:The World of Nanoscience”,Nobel Prize winner Dr.Horst Stormer said that the nanoscale is more interstesting than the atomic scale because the nanoscale is the first point where we can assemble something—it’s not until we start putting atoms together that we can make anything useful.Then the article states that some predictions of nanotechnology such as the use of the rule of quantum mechanics,nanorobot.It
nanotechnology in future.
Key words: nanotechnology value application in future
Text 10
states that there great value in
Global Warming and Its Effects
Abstract:Global warming has been a global issue for many years now.
However, the most prominent effect of global warming exists in the climate change over the past years. It causes the oceans warmer, the intensity of hurricanes amplifies in power and devastation. Another area affected by global warming is the animal kingdom and nature.The number of animals has been decreasing and the various disease has spread to new regions across the globe. A third type of evidence of global warming can be found in plants. The leading cause of global warming is the ongoing burning of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Although carbon dioxide largely harms the environment, the other greenhouse gases have a large impact in the atmosphere. Throughout the world, various nations have been joining to help prevent or slow the process of global warming. The issue of global warming affects nature, people, and the economy. Scientists directly link disease to global warming. When people are trying to get others involved in the cause, a common problem that arises is the lack of motivation. In conclusion, the world needs to put forth a stronger effort to prevent global warming. And the mitigation of global warming, we should do from ourselves, from the little things around.
Key words: global warming ，climate change ，effect
全球变暖以及它的影响
摘要：现在全球变暖已经成为多年来的全球问题，然而，过去几年来全球变暖最突出的影响体现在气候变化上，它导致海洋变得更暖、飓
风的强度和力量更强、冰川融化等等。全球变暖影响的另一个领域是动物王国和自然，它导致动物的数量急剧减少、疾病的传播更加广。全球变暖的第三类证据可以在植物中找到。全球变暖的主要原因是不断地燃烧化石燃料，这种燃烧会向大气中释放二氧化碳。不仅仅是二氧化碳，其它的温室气体也对大气有很大影响。在全世界，不同国家一直在努力防止或减缓全球变暖的过程。这个问题影响到自然、人和经济。科学家们直接把疾病和全球变暖联系起来，当人们努力让其他人参与到这项事业中，出现的一个共同问题是缺乏动力。总之，世界需要付出更大的努力以防止全球变暖。减缓全球变暖，我们应该从自己做起，从身边的小事做起。
关键字：全球变暖，气候变化，影响
Text 11
Risks of Nuclear Power Abstract：
The principal risks associated with nuclear power arise from health effects of radiation.The radiation mainly comes form the radioactive material.They can penetrate deep inside the human body where they can damage biological cells and thereby initiate a cancer. If they strike sex cells, they can cause genetic diseases in progeny.But the rate of the latter is far less than the former. Reactor accidents is also one of the risk of nuclear power.But the nuclear power plant design strategy for preventing accidents ,back-up system and mitigating their potential effects is “defence in depth”, so they happen
probability is exceedingly small. If they all fails,very high radiation doses can destroy body functions and lead to death within 60 days.The radioactive waste products from the nuclear industry must be isolated from contact with people for very long time periods. The bulk of the radioactivity is contained in the spent fuel, which is quite small in volume and therefore easily handled with great care. At other radiation problems，for example, exploitation of materials and transport of radioactive materials also produce radiation.The effects of routine releases of radioactivity from nuclear plants depend somewhat on how the spent fuel is handled.
Key words：radiation，risks，reactor accidents，radioactive waste 核电的风险 摘要： 核电的风险主要来自辐射对健康的危害，这些辐射主要来自于放射性材料。他们可以穿透人体深处,破坏生物细胞,从而引发癌症；如果他们破坏生殖细胞,可能导致遗传疾病。但是后者发生的概率远小于前者。核反应堆事故也是核电的风险之一，由于具有纵深防御的策略，它们发生的几率非常小。但是一旦发生，非常高的辐射剂量可以摧毁身体功能和在60天内导致死亡。核工业的放射性废物必须与人隔离很长时间，放射性的大部分包含在乏燃料，而且体积小，因此非常容易处理。在其它辐射问题上，如在核材料的开采和放射性物质的运输处理时也会产生辐射。但放射性物质从核电站释放的对人类健康的影响在某种程度上取决于它的处理方式。
关键词：辐射、风险、核反应堆事故、放射性废品。
本文来源：http://www.gbppp.com/jd/466970/
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