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The New Public Law
新公共法
The public law of the United Kingdom is defined by the prevailing（adj. 流行的；一般的，最普通的） constitutional order（宪法秩序）,the government and the various institutions （n. 制度；建立；（社会或宗教等）公共机构）of the state，he rights of the citizen and membership of the European Union.Local government exists with（与…共存）statutory （adj. 法定的；法令的；可依法惩处的）powers and responsibilities.There are since 1998 devolved powers to the Scottish Parliament，the Welsh Assembly（n. 装配；集会，集合） ，the Northern Ireland Assembly and since 1999 an elected mayor（n. 市长）for London．The public law of the United Kingdom has lately come of age（臻至成熟）.There are several reasons for this development．Fundamental constitutional reforms have embraced（vt. 拥抱；信奉，皈依；包含）changes to the electoral system（选举制度），a more independent Bank of England with the responsibility of adjusting interests rates（利息，利率） removed from the government of the day，reforms of the House of Lords（英国的上议院），and strategies（n. 策略，战略）to modernize（v 现代化） almost every aspect of government institutions and procedures．There is also a new freedom of Information Act 2000（2000年《信息自由法》）．There are changes to the criminal justice system（刑事司法体系），tribunals（n. 法庭；裁决；法官席） and inquiries（n. 探究；调查；质询），and to the management of the courts system．The most celebrated and acclaimed （vt. 称赞；为…喝采，向…欢呼）innovation（n. 创新，革新；新方法） is the Human Rights Act 1998，which came fully into force in October 2000．The 1998 Act is likely to increase the use of judicial review （司法审查）and thus has the potential to shift（vt. 转移；改变）decision- making in public law matters from elected ministers （n. 部长；大臣）to the courts under the direction of increased judicial controls．
英国的公法是由盛行的宪法秩序来界定的，源于政府和州的不同公共机构，公民的权利和加入欧盟成为其成员国。本地政府与法定的权利和义务共存。这体现于自从1998年联合王国下放权力到苏格兰议会，威尔士国民议会，北爱尔兰议会和自1999年伦敦市市长的民主选举。英国的公法近来已臻至成熟。对于此发展则有以下一些理由：基本宪法的改革包含了选举制度的改变：一个更为独立的负有远离政府控制来调整利率责任的英格兰银行，英国上议院的改革，和几乎政府的机构与程序的每一方面的战略都趋向现代化。2000年英国也
推出了《自由信息法案》。在刑事司法体系，裁判所及审查法，法院系统的管理方面也有一些改变。最让人值得庆祝和欢呼的是1998年《人权法案》，并于2000年开始正式地实施。1998年的《人权法案》很可能增加了司法审查的使用而因此有可能改变公法问题上的决策，从而在增加司法控制的指导下选举法院大臣。
In conceptual terms，public law has developed its own technical rules（技术规则） and procedures and techniques of analysis．In academic terms，public law has broadly defined terms of reference including the academic discourse（学术话语） from lawyers，economists，historians and political scientists．There is also a judicial contribution．The development of administrative law is largely a product of judicial creativity（司法创造力）and self regulation（自我调节）．Since the 1960s there is a remarkable judicial self-confidence in defining and articulating（v表达，表述）the role of the courts in public law matters．As Lord Donaldson remarked in 1984：
从概念术语的角度来看，公法在它自身的技术规则与程序和分析技巧上有一定的发展。从学术角度来看，公法有着广泛的参照定义包括源于法学家，经济学家，历史学家和政治科学家的学术话语。公法的发展同样是一种司法的贡献。行政法的发展在很大程度上是司法创造和政府自我控制的产品。自二十世纪六十年代起在界定和表述公法问题的法院的宪法角色上就有一种卓越的司法自信力。正如Lord Donaldson在1984年评议道：
“ Parliamentary democracy（议会制民主）as we know it is based in the rule of law.That requires all citizens to obey the law，unless and until it can be changed by due process（程序正义）．There are no privileged classes（特权阶层）to whom it does not apply（v适用）．”
如我们所知的议会制民主是基于法治而实施的。它要求所有公民除非和直到程序正义的被修改，否则须遵从于法律。而议会制民主也没有所谓的不适用于的特权阶层。
Changes in judicial attitudes，towards developing the common law in the direction of rights defined more broadly，came through（经历）a series of landmark (n里程碑，划时代的事)cases in the 1960s．Since then，English administrative law has developed incrementally（adv. 递增地；增值地）．Ridge v Balldwin， Padfield v Minister of Agriculture，Fishoies and Food，and the development of Wednesbury unreasonableness enabled the courts to adopt a proactive（adj. 前摄的（前一活动中的因素对后一活动造成影响的）；有前瞻性的，先行一步的）approach．Instead of （代替；不是…而是…）relying on instances of （（类的）实例；（某类别的）实体）past failure in order to develop a systematic approach to administrative law，the courts filled in（填满，替代）,through their own initiative（n. 主动权；首创精神），gaps（n.
差异，缺口；缝隙）left by legislative neglect．The result was clear：a self-confident judiciary that was prepared to fashion new tools for the development of judicial review．In 1977，Order 53 was introduced ，streamlining （vt. 使合理化；使成流线型）mechanisms（n. 机制）and procedures for the application for judicial review．Two landmark decisions showed the extent of judicial self-confidence．In O,Reilly v Mackman，the House of Lords established that the Divisional（adj. 分区的；分割的）Bench （法官的职位(或身份)，[总称]法官(们)，法院）of the High Court had exclusive（subject to certain exceptions ）jurisdiction over（prep. 越过；在…之上；遍于…之上）administrative law matters．In the Council（n. 委员会；会议；理事会）of Civil Service Unions decision,the House of Lords engaged in a form of judicial codification of common law principles.The grounds for judicial review included unreasonableness（n. 无理性），irrationality（n. 不合理，无理性），proportionality（n. 相称；均衡；比例性），and procedural impropriety（程序不当）．It is noteworthy that the doctrine of unreasonableness may have to be strengthened to bring it into line with（按照，与……一致）the higher standards required under the Human Rights Act 1987．
司法态度的改变，是朝着普通法以权力为导向的定义更为广泛的发展，更是在在二十世纪六十年代历经了一系列具有里程碑意义的典型案例。自那时以来，英国的行政法有着快速的发展。Ridge 诉 Balldwin案， Padfield 诉 农业部案，Fishoies and Food，和Wednesbury的无理性发展使法院能够采用积极主动的途径。法院通过它们自身的自主权来填补由于立法忽视而造成的缺口，不是为了依赖于过去失败的实例而是为了对行政法制定出一套系统的研究方法。其结果是清晰的：一个拥有自信力的司法制度是使用新的工具来为司法审查的发展而准备。在1977年，第53号令颁布，为了司法审查的适用而简化机制和程序。两个划时代的决定证明了司法自信力的程度。在O,Reilly v诉Mackman一案中，英国上议院确立了高等法院的各区法官在行政法事务上拥有排他管辖权（使某人服从于某些例外）。在公务员委员会的决定上，英国上议院是以普通法原则所编纂的法典形式来参与。司法审查的基础包括无理性，不合理行，均衡性和程序不当。值得注意的是无理性主义可能不得不在1987年《人权法案》背景下强化与高标准要求一致。
As a result of both creative judicial activism（司法能动）and legislation，judges have developed a wide discretion as to（至于，关于；就……而论）when to uphold（vt. 支撑；鼓励；赞成；举起）a judicial review．This flexibility，allowing the courts the power to exclude （vt. 排除；排斥；拒绝接纳；逐出）unmeritorious cases at an early stage，saves time and creates
a specialized jurisdiction for the administrative courts．Cases （n诉讼案件）must be taken promptly(adv. 迅速地；立即地；敏捷地) within a three -month period．The standing (原告资格,起诉权；起诉资格)of the applicant is determined by the substantial(adj. 大量的；实质的；内容充实的) merits of the applicants case．The courts have a discretion whether or not to grant any remedy（n法律救济）．
作为都创造司法能动和立法的结果，法官就司法审查而言发展了一种宽广的自由裁量权。这种权力的灵活性在早期时允许法官有权排除诉求无望的诉讼案件，从而节省了时间和为行政法庭发展了专门的管辖权。但诉讼案件必须在三个月期间内迅速着手解决。而申请人的起诉权是由申请案例的实质化价值来决定的。法院有它自己的自由裁量权：是否给予申请人任何的法律救济。
The role of the courts must also be placed in the context of the development of an ，extensive jurisdiction by statutory（adj. 法定的；法令的；可依法惩处的） tribunals（n. 法庭；裁决；法官席）．Employment tribunals（劳工裁判所）under the Employment Tribunals Act 1998 cover an extensive jurisdiction over employment issues，including race relations under the Race Relations Act 1976（1976年种族关系法）， the Race Relations（ Amendment） Act 200， sex discrimination under the Sex Discrimination Act 1975（1975年性别歧视法），equal pay under the Equal Pay Act 1970（1970年平等报酬法），and disability under the Disability Discrimination Act 1995（1995年残疾歧视法案）．The Social Security Appeal Tribunal（上诉法庭）covers protection under various provisions（n. 规定）of the law relating to（关于，与…相关连）the payment of social security，and acts as an appeal tribunal against the decision of the adjudication officer（仲裁官）．Mental health tribunals，lands tribunals（土地裁判庭）， and rent assessment committees （租金评估委员会）are also important examples of the work of tribunals in specialist areas．Tribunals offer the advantages of speed，low cost，informality ，flexibility ， expertise（n. 专门知识；专门技术；专家的意见），accessibility（n. 易接近；可亲；可以得到），and privacy（n. 隐私；秘密；隐居；隐居处）in the adjudication（n. 裁定；判决）of disputes．
法院的宪法角色必须放置于法定法庭中广泛的司法管辖权发展的背景之下。在1998年的《就业法庭法》下的劳工裁判处涵盖了一种处于就业问题之上宽泛的司法权，包括在1970年的《种族关系法》下的种族关系，2000年《种族关系修正案》，1975年的《性别歧视法》下的性别歧视，1970年的《平等报酬法》下的平等付薪，和1995年的《残障歧视法》下的
残疾歧视。社会福利法庭包含了关于在不同的法律规制下社保支付和上诉法庭的法令违背仲裁官决定的保护。精神健康法庭，土地法庭和租金与住房法庭对于在专业领域里的法庭工作同样也是重要的实例。法庭提供了仲裁争议中速度，低成本，非正式性，灵活性，专业性，可及性和隐私权的优势。
The extension of the role of the courts is also part of a larger question of how law is increasingly being used to regulate market power and ，through regulatory reform(管制改革) ,increase accountability（n.问责制）over the newly privatized utility industries（公用事业产业）．The scale（n. 规模；比例）of this challenge provides public law with perhaps its most formidable（adj. 强大的；可怕的；令人敬畏的；艰难的）challenge ranging （vt. 使并列；归类于）as it does across different economic instruments （经济手段）and policy considerations（政策考量）．
法院宪法角色的拓展对于如何增加在调节市场力量和通过管制改革增加在新兴私有化的公共事业上的问责制的法律的适用同样也是一大问题。这种挑战的规模提供公法与其最为强大的挑战可能归类于不同的经济手段和政策考量。
Added to（加入，加到；增加）this is a rights-based（权利本位）analysis of how rights may allow legal challenge（n.回避)and create changes in the law．In substantive and legal terms there is an administrative court with an exclusive jurisdiction to hear applications for judicial review．Judicial review or administrative law requires its own distinct rules and procedures．The Human Rights Act 1998 provides citizens with enforceable（adj. 可实施的；可强行的；可强迫的）rights and enables the judiciary broadly defined powers to interpret and review（vt. 回顾；检查；复审） potentially all public power in whatever way it may be defined．Lord Hoffman in the House of Lords in Alconbury explained the role of the courts under the Human Rights Act 1998 as follows:
把以权力为基础的分析增加到怎样使权力可能允许存在法律回避和法律中制造回避。从实质和合法的角度来看存在着一个运用司法审查去审讯申请人而享有独立司法权的行政法庭。司法审查与行政法要求自身有其显特的规则与程序。1998年的《人权法》提供了公民拥有可实施的权力和使司法权概括地明确在所有公共权力中潜在的可能以任何方式来界定的具有说明与复审的权力。最高法院的Lord Hoffman在1998《人权法》的背景下解释了法院的角色，其解释如下：
“ There is no conflict between human rights and the democratic principle．Respect for （尊重…；对…
Public Good Demand
The demand or benefit from a public good is the sum of the willingness-to pay or benefit by consumers for each unit of the good．Each consumer shares the benefit from each unit of the good．This is unlike a private good， where each consumer gets a private benefit from each unit the consumer purchases without sharing the purchase or benefit with other consumers．Therefore， with a public good the benefit is the sum of the benefits from each consumer that receives a benefit from the unit of output．This is illustrated in the table below：
公共产品的需求和收益是消费者为每单位物品的支付意愿或收益的总和。每一个消费者享有每一单位物品的收益。这不像一个私人物品，在私人物品中，每一个消费者在不用与别人一起负担购买和分享收益的情况下，可以从每一单位的物品购买中得到得到每一单位的私人收益。所以在公共物品中，收益是每个从单位产出得到收益的每个消费者的收益的总和。这将会在下面表格陈述：
In the fictitious（虚构的） example in the table， the three scientists share a laboratory and are considering jointly purchasing several journal subscriptions．The journal subscriptions would be shared among the scientists．The table simplifies this decision by assuming that the journal subscriptions are similar and the benefit they receive from the first is the highest for all three scientists．The three scientists have a common second choice that they value less， a third choice， etc.， for the five journals they are considering jointly purchasing subscriptions to.
在表格里虚构的例子中，三个科学家共同享有一间实验室并考虑一起购买几种期刊订阅。期刊订阅将由三个科学家共同享有。通过假设期刊订阅是相似的而且他们从第一本得到的收益是最高的来用表格简化决策。这三个科学家有共同的第二种选择，但是他们对其评价要比第一本低一点，第三种选择所受到的评价又会再少一点，他们考虑共同购买的五本期刊以此类推。
Public goods should be jointly financed．The scientists may pool（合伙）their funds to purchase more journal subscriptions than each would individually．Assume for this example that a
personal subscription to each journal costs ＄１００．If the scientists purchase journals only for their private use， then George will subscribe to two journals while George would pay a total of ＄２００for two journal subscriptions．George’s consumer surplus would be ＄５０ ( the ＄２５０in benefit minus ＄２００cost )．
公共物品应该共同负担。科学家们可以合伙集资去买更多的期刊订阅，这样就会比一个人单独买的多。假设这个案例中一个人买一本期刊的话就要花费100美元。如果科学家只是购买期刊自己使用的话，乔治就会订阅两本，这就要花费掉他200美元。乔治的消费者剩余就会是50美元（250美元收益减去200美元成本）。
However， if the scientists pool their resources and order several subscriptions at＄１００each， they will purchase four journal subscriptions．The fourth subscription has a shared benefit of ＄１０４，while the fifth subscription has a shared benefit of ＄８７．The scientists would pay a total of ＄４００for the four subscriptions．Their consumer surplus would be ＄２５９ ( the ＄６５９in benefit minus ＄４００ cost )．The journals are public goods， shared by the three scientists．The scientists’ public good demand and optimal number of subscriptions is shown in the figure below：
但是，如果科学家合伙集资以每本100美元的价格去订阅几种期刊，那么他们将订四本。第四本期刊有104美元的共同收益，而第五本只有87美元的共同收益。科学家将会支付400美元购买前四本期刊。他们的消费者剩余就会是259美元（659美元收益减去400美元成本）。期刊这样一来就是公共物品了，由这三个科学家享有。这三个科学家的公共物品需求和订阅的最佳数量在下图中展示：
in the figure， the public good demand curve is the vertical summation of the three scientists’ demand curves．The price line at ＄１００ crosses George’s demand curve at two subscriptions and the public good demand curve at four subscriptions．
在图中，公共物品的需求曲线是三个科学家需求曲线的垂直相加之和。100美元的价格水平线将乔治的需求曲线的订阅数为2本那里穿过，而在公共物品需求曲线的订阅数为4本那里穿过。
This is an example of a special or corporate library．In this small corporate library there are three scientists who have a public good demand for journal subscriptions．In any library， there are patrons（顾客） who have a public good demand for access（to cooks， journals， databases， reference services， and other materials and services．The use of library services reflects the demand for these services by patrons．Even if patrons are not charged a price for access， they have an opportunity cost of time spent traveling to and using the services．The public good demand curve for library services can be constructed by summing the value of each patron’s demand．In a corporate library there is also the benefit to the corporation of the scientists’ access to the library services．New products and services developed by scientists increase the profitability （营利能力）of the corporation．The increase in corporate profit， over and abovewhat the scientists view as their demand for the library， is also part of the public good demand for the corporate library services．
这是一个特殊或共用的图书馆例子。 在这一间小小的共用图书馆有三个科学家，他们都有对期刊订阅的公共物品需求。在任何图书馆，都有对烹饪、期刊、数据库、参考咨询服务和其他资料有需求的顾客。图书馆服务的使用体现在顾客对这些服务的需求上。即使顾客没有为这些使用缴费，但他们也可能存在用在路途上和使用这些服务的时间成本。图书馆服务的公共物品需求曲线可以通过对每个顾客的需求评价叠加来构建。在一个共用的图书馆也存在科学家共同使用图书馆服务的收益。科学家开发的新产品和服务可以增加共同的营利能力。共用营利的增加超过了科学家们认为对图书馆的需求评价，也是共用图书馆服务的公共物品需求的一部分。
Estimating demand for public goods is difficult．When consumers are charged for access， we can use data on the amount they purchase to estimate their demand．For example， the number of newspapers， copies of a software program， cell phone minutes of access， or movies tickets sold can be used to estimate demand．However， when consumers are not charged for access， economists must be creative in finding metrics to use for demand analysis．The use of special， public， school， or research libraries along with the opportunity cost of this use can be helpful in determining demand for these public goods．Proxies for use include circulation， reference
questions asked， interlibrary loan items requested， library web page hits， and number of library visitors．
对公共物品的评估是困难的。当对消费者收费时，我们可以通过他们购买数量的数据来评估他们的需求。举个例子，新闻报纸、软件程序的副本、电话使用分钟数或者是卖出电影票的数量可以被用来评估需求。但是，当消费者没有为使用付费时，经济学家在寻找用来做需求分析的度量标准就必须要有创造力。特殊的、公共的、学校的或者是调查研究的图书馆的使用连同使用的机会成本都会对决定这些公共物品需求有帮助。使用代理包括循环、要问的参考问题,要求的图书馆馆际的贷款项目,图书馆网页页面点击量和图书馆游客的数量。
Demand for public goods is also estimated by asking patrons or citizens to quantify the benefit they receive from the goods．For example， surveys of library patrons ask which services patrons would like increased or decreased．Surveys of citizens ask about the financing of community services．Economists have found that it can be difficult to calculate the demand for public goods from these surveys because citizens have an incentive to misrepresent the benefit they receive from services if they feel it may increase these services or increase their taxes．Finally， many public goods produced by governments are influenced by election results．Public school and public library budgets are voted on by local residents．The residents express their demand for these services by voting for or against the proposed level of spending．Although these methods of measuring the demand for public goods may be imprecise， it is important to try to assess the demand and cost of a public good to determine the efficient level of output．
公共物品的需求也可以通过叫顾客或者市民来量化他们使用这些物品的收益来进行评估。比如，图书馆顾客的调查可以询问顾客希望增加或减少哪种服务。市民的调查可以询问社区服务的筹措资金的问题。经济学家已经发现很难从调查中计算公共物品的需求，因为如果市民觉得它可能增加这些服务或提高他们的税收，他们就会倾向歪曲他们从这些服务中得到的收益。最后，由政府生产的许多公共产品会受到选举结果的影响。公立学校和公共图书馆由当地居民投票决定。居民通过投票支持或否决提出的开支来表达他们自己的需求。尽管这些衡
量公共产品需求的方法可能不准确，但它对尝试了解一种公共产品的需求和成本从而决定有效率的产出显得就很重要。
Backgrounds for Controls over Administration
行政管理的背景
Necessity of Control
控制的必要性
The action of the administration, whose forms and methods have just been described, is so important that it is impossible in any country possessing constitutional government to allow every administrative officer a perfectly free hand in the discharge of his duties. The public is so dependent upon the action of administrative officers that it is of the utmost（最大的） importance that their action shall be efficient and harmonious．The officers of the administration attend to many things which it is impossible for individuals to attend to at all．If they do not perform their duties, or perform them unwisely or inefficiently,it will necessarily follow that these things will not be done at all or will be done in such a way that the result of administrative action will be of little value． Some means must be provided also which shall insure harmony in administrative action where uniformity of treatment of a given subject throughout the state is necessary．
行政管理行为，它的形式和前边已经描述过了，十分重要以致于任何国家的本质控权的政府允许所有行政人员拥有充分自由去履行他的职责。公众如此依赖行政人员的行政行为，提供的效率和和谐，以致成为最关键的地方。行政人员参与许多个人无法参与的职责。如果行政人员履行其职责不够理性，或者不够高效，这样将会导致这些事情无法完成或者就算完成了行政行为都仅发挥了一点作用而已。因此，有必要提供一些方法来保证行政行为有效和和谐。
Individuals further are so at the mercy of administrative officers, who have behind them the entire power of the state,that some protection must be offered against the violation of private rights．The administration is often thrown into relations with individual citizens which must necessarily be hostile．It demands of them sacrifices which they regard as unreasonable or as not justified by the law of the land．Nearly all the expressions of the will of the state which are to be carried out in their details and executed by the administration cause a conflict at times between the conception by the administration of what the public welfare demands and the conception by the individual of the sphere of private rights guaranteed to him by the law．If the officers of the administration had, in all such cases, uncontrolled discretion, it is to be feared that individual
rights would be violated．Of course it is the purpose of all administrative legislation to lessen as far as possible the realm（领域） of administrative discretion and to fix limits within which the administration must move．But it is impossible to do this with such precision as effectively to protect private rights．The discretion of administrative officers cannot be taken away by legislation without causing their usefulness seriously to be impaired．Large discretion must be given to administrative officers by the legislative authority, so large that some means of controlling the administration must be devised （设计）if private rights are to be guaranteed inviolate．
个人进一步的发展，是在那些拥有权力的行政人员控制之中的，因此应该采取相应的保护措施来保障个人的权利。行政管理与公民之间经常陷入一种必然会敌对的状态。行政管理要求公民个人他们舍弃那些行政管理者认为不合理或者不合国家法律的行为。几乎所有国家都会在有关行政细节和执行意愿的表达在满足公共利益需求的行政观念和保障法定个人权利的行政理念之间引起冲突矛盾。如果行政人员遇到这样的事件，在没有控制的行政自由裁量权下，个人的合法权利难以保障。当然，所有的行政立法的目的都是尽可能的缩小行政自由裁量权的领域和修复一些必须移除的行政管理的界限。但这很难把握行政效率和保障个人权利的精度。行政人员的自由裁量权不能被行政立法完全剥夺，否则会严重影响行政人员的有效性。如此之多的行政裁量权授予了行政人员，因此有必要设计一些控制方法保障公民个人的权利不受侵害。
Finally, the action of the administration should be as far as possible in harmony with the state will as expressed in the law, for an unexecuted law is, from the point of view of actual conduct, no law at all．The action of the administration should also conform, not merely to the letter of the law, but also to its spirit, should promote the public welfare as that is conceived of by the body representative of the public．But the discretion of the administration relative to concrete(（具体的） cases cannot be controlled by the statutes of the legislature（立法机构） without seriously impairing administrative efficiency．As before, some means must be devised of controlling the action of the administration, more concrete in character, more adaptable to particular cases．
最后，行政行为尽可能的和国家意志相协调，这些国家意志是通过法律确立下来的，而对一些未能执行的法律，从实际控制的角度上看，不能算是法律。行政行为应该遵循一定的形式，不仅是法律的条款，也包括法律精神，当然行政行为还应促进公共利益由于公共利益实际上代表了公众。但是行政自由裁量权在不影响行政效率的前提下，相对具体的案例不能通过国家立法机构控制。依旧必须设计一些控制手段来控制行政行为，在性质上更具体，更
适应特殊的案例。
For all these reasons, then, it is desirable, indeed necessary, that there be formed methods of control over the action of the administration by means of which it will be possible to render （给予补偿）that action efficient, and to force the administration to consider private rights to conform （遵从）to the state will as that has been expressed by the legislature．
综上所述，这是迫切、确实必要的，通过形成控制行政行为方法来保证行政效率，同时迫使行政管理者考虑公民个人权利，遵从通过立法形式确立的国家意志表达。
Interests to Be Regarded
利益被重视
The formation of a system of control over the administration, which shall secure all that is desired, is as difficult as it is necessary, partly on account of the variety of the interests to be regarded, partly on account of the variety and continual recurrence of the administrative acts to be controlled．Analogies（类似） from other branches of the law must be followed with caution, because each of these other branches of the law has, as a rule, regard for only one interest, and because the acts to be controlled in the other branches of the law are less varied in character．Thus the private law aims merely at the maintenance of private rights and at the observance of the law in the books．It has little, if any,regard for public policy．Thus again, the criminal law aims merely at the attainment of good social conditions, while constitutional and international law aim primarily, if not exclusively, at the efficiency of governmental organization and the maintenance of state integrity and power．Constitutional law, it is true, endeavors （尽力）to secure the protection of private rights in so far as it formulates a bill of such rights, but the remedies（救济） for their violation, and without which they are themselves valueless, are to be found very largely in the control over administrative action provided by the administrative law．
行政行为控制系统的形式，要求所有都被保护，其困难程度和必要程度是一致的。在一定程度上，是由于不同的利益应该都被注重；不同的行政行为应该被控制。类似不同的法律分支应该应该谨慎，因为所有的法律分支都是作为法律的一部分，只关注一方的利益。同时，虽然行政行为被一些法律分支所控制，但远是不够的。私法的目标极少维护个人权利和主张遵循记录在案的法律。这仅是一点，如果有可能，要考虑公共政策的要求。因此再强调一遍，刑法的目标仅是维护良好的社会环境，相比之下，宪法和国际法的目标更加基本，而不仅是单一的保障政府组织的行政效率和维护国家尊严和权力。宪法，实际上尽力在一定范围内，
通过规划大量的权力来确保能保护个人权利，但对于已经侵犯那些行政者自己认为没有价值的个人权利的行政行为，进行救济的方式在行政法中能找到大量的条例。
Administrative law, however, endeavors to attain all these four ends, viz．（分别是）, state integrity and power, governmental efficiency, the maintenance of private rights, and the attainment of good social conditions．Therefore, we cannot rely, as in these other branches of the law, on any one kind of control．No system of private or even public actions will suffice to control the application of the administrative law or the action of the administration made necessary thereby（从而）, as it undoubtedly does suffice for the control of the application of private and criminal law．No system of administrative centralization（中央集权） or legislative control will suffice, as in the case of international and constitutional law．On the contrary, a well-organized control over the application of the administrative law and over administrative action must make use of all these methods of control, since the administrative law aims at governmental efficiency, individual liberty, and social well-being, as interpreted by the body representative of public opinion．
行政法，不管怎样，都在努力追求四个结果，分别是：国家尊严和权力，政府效率，保障个人权利，还有维护良好的社会环境。因此，我们不能仅依赖那些法律分支能成为一种控制方式。没有一个私人系统甚至公共行为有能力去控制行政法和行政行为的应用，毋庸置疑有系统能够控制私法和刑法行为。也没有一个行政中央集权系统或者立法机构在国际法和宪法的限制之下能控制。相反，一个良好控制的组织能超越行政法和行政行为的应用，但必须采取有效的控制，使得行政法的目标不仅是行政效率，个人自由和社会良性运行这些作为大众意见的代表也将会被诠释。
In the formation of the control over the administration, regard must be had, then, for the interests to be furthered by the administrative law．The first of these interests is that of governmental efficiency．Some method of control must be devised（设计）by which harmony and uniformity（一致性）of administrative action and administrative efficiency may be secured, as many cases may arise where the neglect of officials will not cause a serious violation of private rights, but will simply tend to impair governmental efficiency．This method of control should be so framed that it may be exercised by the organs （机构）of the government of their own motion and not simply at the instance of private persons．
在行政管理控制的形式上，必须注意，通过行政法保护更大的利益群体。首先，要确保政府的效率。采取必要的措施确保行政行为和行政管理效率。很多情况政府官员的怠慢不会
严重的侵犯个人的权利，但会影响行政效率。因此，这方面的控制方法应该是有框架的，从而限制在实践中由政府由政府自己意志决定和仅是个人的情形。
The second interest to be regarded is the preservation of individual rights, the maintenance in its entirety（完全） of the sphere（范围） of freedom of individual action guaranteed by the law of the land．Some method of control must be devised by which the officers of the government may be prevented from encroaching upon this sphere．As this method of control is framed in the interest of the individual, it should be possible for the individual to set it in motion by appealing to impartial tribunals from those administrative acts which he believes violate the rights assured to him by the law．Such impartial tribunals are found in the courts which in various ways may be entrusted with the power to prevent encroachment by the administration on the domain of private rights．
其次，要确保个人的利益，这里指的是通过法律维护个人行为的完全自由。因此，有必要采取必要措施来防范政府官员蚕食这方面的个人权利，这种方法的框架是个人的利益，让个人有机会运用把那些他认为侵犯他个人权利的行政行为告上法庭来取得公正的裁决。如此公正的裁决是建立在法庭受到不同形式委托而有权力去防范行政管理侵犯个人权利。
The third interest to be regarded by the administrative law is the social well-being．There must be some method of control devised which will force the administration in its action to keep before it always the fact that it is not a law unto itself；that one of the great reasons of its existence is the promotion of the social well-being as expressed in the law．Such a method of control should be so organized as to allow that body which is most thoroughly representative of public opinion — that is, the legislature — to step in and compel the administration to obey the law．
最后，行政法是社会良性发展的必然产物，因此有必要采取一些控制方法从而迫使行政管理在其行为上总是保持在实践中而不是法律理论上。其中行政行为有个重要的存在理由是按照法律诠释的社会良性发展。如此一个控制措施应该组织允许代表公众观点的主体，即是立法会采取有效步骤迫使行政主体服从法律。
Professional English Test for Culture and Art Management
——French tourism
Ⅰ.Vocabulary（Value=30）
Section1 Translation Translate the sentence into English. （Value=30）
1.（Value of the key words=2）
Answer：Culture historical protection consciousness in the French sink
法国是世界上最早发展旅游业的国家之一。（Value of the key words=3）
Answer：
2.法国在各国建立或者租赁的最美的建筑，而是。（Value of the key words=2）
Answer：France most beautiful construction which or rents in the various countries' establishment, ”.
4.（Value of the key words=2）
Answer：
5.（Value of the key words=3）
Answer：France protects oneself culture at the same time, also has developed the tourism,
Ⅱ.Reading Comprehension & Judgment （Value=40）
France in 1910 tenable National Travel agency, in 1997 specially managed the travel agency by a state affair secretary, and various provinces all were equipped with the travel agency. French Government also likes encouraging and mobilizes the populace protecting own cultural heritage, France is in the world “world culture inheritance most countries”, the government protects the cultural heritage to the people the action also to be able to give the corresponding encouragement.In 1830, French Government had been established “the historical historical site”.Also passes through the near century experience accumulation, has the epoch-making significance cultural heritage protection method to be born, this was on December 31, 1913 through “protection history historical site law”.It is in the world the first protection cultural heritage modern law.The protection inheritance becomes the all citizen's aware consciousness and the motion gradually.
Now, France is the world traveling great nation, the tourism is developed, in 2001 the international traveling reception people reached 76,500,000 people, occupied the world traveling market 11.1%, occupied world 1st.The main source of tourists country is Germany, England, Holland, Switzerland, Belgium, Italy, US and Japan.The tourism is France third big creates income the profession, is getting up the positive role in the French trade aspect.
“the France cultural center”, these cultural center primary mission is the propaganda, promotes the French culture, thus promotion tourism.The culture is the French tourism trump card.For in the competition intense world traveling market grab opportunity, France while is protecting the cultural heritage with all one's strength, also excavates the cultural traveling the potential.The development traveling while supports the French economy, also becomes France to protect one of oneself culture most effective methods.
Section1 Reading Comprehension To choose the right answer fill in the blanks. （Value=20）
1.The French government established the "historical sites" in __________?
A.1830 B.1910 C.1913 D.1997
2.“Protection history historical site law” was born in __________?
A.1830 B.1910 C.1913 D.1997
3.The tourism is France __________ big creates income the profession.
A.First B.Second C.Third D.4th【公共事业管理英文】
4.Now,__________ is great traveling nation in the world?
A.Japan B.England C.Germany D.France
5.The cultural center primary mission is __________ the French culture.
A.Improve B.Promotes C.Spoiling D.Oppose
Section2 Judgment T means True, F is for False, choose the right answer fill in the blanks. （Value=20）
1.“The protection history historical site law” is in the world the first protection cultural heritage modern law.（T）
2.The development traveling while supports the French economy, also becomes France to protect one of oneself culture most effective methods.（T）
3.In 1913, The French government established the "historical sites place".（F）
4.The French government encourages mobilize people and the protection of cultural heritage.（T）
5.To damage heritage gradually become the French citizens' consciousness and action.（F）
Ⅲ.Writing (Value=30)
Section1 Composition According to the given topic and main content to write a composition of no less than 120 words. (Value=30)
From France tourism think of China tourism
1.France while is protecting the cultural heritage with all one's strength, also excavates the cultural
traveling the potential.
2.The French government pay attention to the protection of the culture.
Answer
France's tourism lies in the government to pay great attention to cultural very much prosperously the protection, but does in Chinese this aspect well insufficiently, only takes the income, does not pay great attention to cultural heritages and so on protection historical relics, cannot enhance own income as well as the tourism, France protects oneself culture at the same time, also has developed the tourism, simultaneously also raised the economical level, the impetus economy growth.Therefore, these our China all needs to study to France.
So development tourism must achieve the protection culture, propagates the Chinese culture, encourages the citizen to protect the culture, can cause China's culture to be more prosperous, can better develop own tourism.
公共管理学常用外文期刊简介
【1】社会科学总论
报刊名称 Society.
ISSN: 0147-2011
创刊年: 1963
出版期次 6/yr. 开本:26.0x19.0 页数:100 目录价:186/USD
出版机构 Transaction Publishers,USA 出版地:美国
译名简介 《社会》刊载社会科学，包括政治、法律、教育和公共政策问题等方面的研究文章。
ASP有全文，延迟6个月，SSCI来源刊，影响因子0.096
【2】行政管理 公共事业管理
报刊名称 Journal of Policy Analysis & Management.
ISSN: 0276-8739
创刊年: 1981
出版期次 4/yr. 开本:24.5x18.0 页数:150 目录价:803/USD
出版机构 John Wiley & Sons Inc.,USA 出版地:美国
译名简介 《政策分析与管理杂志》本刊由经济学、公共管理学和运筹学的专家撰稿，发表政策分析与管理方面的书评和文章。
john wiley有全文
报刊名称 Public Administration and Development. (Print and Online)
创刊年: 1981
出版期次 5/yr. 开本: 目录价:1019/USD
出版机构 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.,UK 出版地:英国
译名简介 《公共行政管理与发展》探讨地方、区域和国家的行政管理实际问题，着重讨论涉及政府或国家利益的行政管理和发展的特征。介入发展活动的非政府机构（包括私人企业、志愿组织）同国家行政管理的关系也在讨论之列。 John wiley有全文，SSCI来源刊，影响因子0.603
报刊名称 Social Policy and Administration.
ISSN: 0144-5596
创刊年: 1967
出版期次 7/yr. 目录价:407/GBP
出版机构 Blackwell Publishers Ltd.,UK 出版地:英国
译名简介 《社会政策与行政管理》刊载英国和其他国家的社会服务、卫生保健、社会安全、就业、住房以及行政管理与政策等方面的理论与实践的研究论文。
Blackwell有全文，
报刊名称 Public Administration.
ISSN: 0033-3298
创刊年: 1922
出版期次 4/yr. 开本:21.5x15.5
本文来源：http://www.gbppp.com/jd/440691/
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