【www.gbppp.com--作文大全】
A：We love to hear the stories of people who have been transformed by their tribulations.
B:Year! There seems to be a built-in human capacity to flourish under the most difficult circumstance.
C:I wish it hadn’t happened, but I’m a better person for it. A:In fact,roughly half the people who struggle with adversity say that their lives have subsequently in some ways improved .
B:More commonly,people rebound or even eventually thrive.
C：You’re not going to be the person you thought you were, but here’s who you are going to be instead,and that turns out to be a pretty great life.
B:For a more common example of growth through adversity, look to one of life’s biggest challenges:parenting. A:Having a baby has been shown to decrease levels of happiness.
C:Ultimately, the emotional reward can compensate for the pain and difficulty of adversity.
B:So we need more than happiness to live the best life.
有关学习英语翻译的讨论
0933 陈元龙 涉外旅游
[摘要] 翻译学习策略是影响翻译学习效果的一项重要因素, 它解释学生如何学习翻译, 促进翻译知识的自动化。为了更好得发挥翻译学习策略的效能, 笔者根据大学外语翻译教学的实际情况总结归纳了几种既适合学生学习特点又有利于提高翻译水平的翻译学习策略。
[关键词] 大学外语; 翻译; 学习策略
[Abstract] Translation learning strategies is an important factor that affects learning, which explains how students learn translation, and promote knowledge of automated translation. In order to better perform better translation of the effectiveness of learning strategies, the author translated the University foreign language teaching situation summarized several characteristics not only for students but also will help raise the level of translation learning strategies.
[Key words] College English; translation; learning strategies
众所周知, 外语学习者在自身条件、学习环境、所付出的努力等大体相同的情况下, 其学习效果却有天壤之别。学习策略是影响学习效果的一项重要因素, 可以说, 对学习策略的研究不仅有助于解释学生的个体差异, 而且对外语的教与学及其理论建构均有巨大的影响。 翻译学习策略是指学生对翻译学习所采取的总体思路和具体方法, 既包括直接作用于翻译学习的特殊思路,也包括间接支持翻译学习的一般思路和方法。毫无疑问, 在翻译学习过程中, 无论是优秀的学生还是其他的学生都有意识或下意识地选择和使用了若干学习策略。然而, 值得注意的是优秀的学生往往选择使用了一些与其他学生不同的学习策略, 是什么因素制约着学生对翻译学习策略的选择和使用呢? 影响学生翻译学习策略的选择和使用的因素有以下六个方面: ①学习者的目标语水平; ②学习者的文化背景; ③学习者的个人特征; ④目标语学习环境; ⑤学习策略观念; ⑥目标语学习时间。这些因素互相依存、互相关联, 共同构成影响策略运用的因素, 从而影响学习者的学习成绩。因此, 教师应从这些因素着手, 增强学生在这些方面的认知意识。每个学生都具有不同的优势和弱点, 他们只有扬长避短, 选择适合自己的学习策略, 才能弥补自身的某些不足, 获得翻译学习的成功。 通过调查得出以下结论: ①学生在翻译中对翻译学习策略的重要性认识不够, 所采用的翻译学习策略比较少; ②在学生所用的策略中绝大多数是以语言学为基础的, 他们较少了解并使用以认知心理学为基础的翻译学习策略。为了更好得发挥翻译学习策略的效能, 笔者
结合大学外语翻译教学的实际情况总结归纳了几种既适合学生学习特点, 又有利于提高翻译水平的翻译学习策略。
1 图式策略
人一生下来就在同外部世界的交往过程中开始认识周围的人、物体、各种事件和各种情景, 在大脑中形成不同的模式。这样的认知模式是围绕不同的事物和情景形成的有序的知识系统。人们把这种知识系统称为图式, 它是人的头脑中关于外部世界的知识的组织形式, 是人们赖以认识和理解周围事物的基础[1]。图式实际上是一些知识的片断, 它以相对独立的形式保存在人的大脑记忆中, 对言语的理解其实就是激活大脑中相应的知识片断的过程。如果面对的新信息在我们大脑中没有现存的相类似的图式, 就会对理解产生负面影响。因此, 我们需要将“图式”引入翻译学习策略研究, 使译者能成功激活脑海中与文本相关的图式以求得对原文的正确理解。
翻译时, 文本内容可以激活译者头脑中相关的图式, 这有助于译者预测文本下一步可能出现的情景。翻译时如缺乏背景知识或不能恰当地运用背景知识, 既不能成功地激活图式, 理解就会受到严重的影响, 所以译者在对原文的理解过程中应成功激活脑海中与文本相关的图式, 以求得对原文的正确理解。教师可以给学生提供一些需要激活图式才能正确理解的语言材料, 然后根据这些材料进行翻译。应用图式策略时, 有两个值得注意的问题: 一是翻译中常常出现图式应用错误的情况, 尤其是文字表达比较含蓄的时候; 二是学生所拥有的认知图式并不一定都是对事物的正确反映, 或者都已经完善。因此, 教学中, 教师既要帮助学生记忆语言形式及其功能, 又要帮助他们调动相关图式, 正确运用技巧弥补在字面上没有表达的意义, 还要帮助他们修正或充实对事物的认知图式。
2 推理策略
推理是从已知的或假设的事实中引出结论, 它可以作为一个相对独立的思维活动出现, 经常参与许多其他的认知活动[2]。推理是文本结构的内在特征, 不是译者凭借想象所作出的随意行为, 翻译时有些文本需借助推理才能达到正确理解。翻译时人们在看到文本的内容后, 往往会根据已有的知识经验做出一系列推理, 这些推理为译者提供了额外的信息, 把文本中的所有内容都联系起来, 使人能充分理解每一个句子。
翻译时采用推理策略可以增加信息, 把握事物之间的联系, 促进言语的理解。教师要有意识地给学生介绍一些常用的推理技巧, 如从文本的整体结构进行推理, 从作者的暗示及上下文线索进行推理; 根据逻辑指示词进行推理; 利用文本中的解释和定义对某些词句进
行推理, 上述这些推理理解技巧一定要和正确地识别语言结构内容紧密结合起来, 否则这种推理就成了脱离文本的主观猜测。
3 猜词策略
学生的概念能力在翻译中起重要作用。所谓概念能力是指在理解原文过程中如何对语言文字的零星信息升华为概念的能力, 是原文材料的感知输入转化为最佳理解的全部过程。一个学生在词汇贫乏时, 词句、段落形不成概念和对关键词在原文中的含义不甚理解的情况下, 得不到文字信息的反馈, 就会陷入对内容的胡乱猜测, 所以要指导学生使用猜词策略。 翻译中的猜词策略主要有以下几种: ①根据词的构成猜测生词词义, 这是比较常用的一种方法, 它要求学生掌握一定的构词法知识, 特别是词根、前缀、后缀的意义; ②根据意义上的联系猜测词义, 句子的词语或上下文之间在意义上常常有一定的联系, 根据这种联系可以猜测词义; ③通过换用词语推测生词词义, 在文本中常会出现使用不同的词语表达同一种意思, 难易词语交换使用的现象, 据此可猜测生词词义; ④利用信号词, 在上下文中起着纽带作用的词语叫信号词, 注意这些词语对猜测生词词义有时能起很大作用; ⑤结合实例猜测生词词义, 有时, 在下文中给出的例子对上文中提到的事物加以解释, 可以结合例子中常用词猜测所要证明的事物中的生词词义, 反之, 也可以猜测例子中的生词含义。 4 语境策略
语境就是指语言文字一经使用后所处的言语环境, 它既指言语的宏观环境, 也指言语的微观环境[3]。微观语境是词的涵义搭配和语义组合, 它使意义定位在特定的义项上; 宏观语境是话题、场合、对象等, 它使意义固定化、确切化。在翻译中, 既要考虑微观语境, 又要考虑宏观语境, 两者相互结合才能确定话语意思。语境的实质是认知的, 是人的记忆中的百科知识与反映在短期记忆中的具体的交际情景和说话人的言语刺激合作用的产物[4]。翻译中译者除了利用自己的语言知识获取句子本身的意义之外, 还必须根据原文语境中提供的各种信息进行思辨、推理, 找出原作者隐于明说之后的意图, 以形成自己对原作意义的认知心理图示, 进而确定相应的译文形式, 准确表达原义。
语境在翻译中起着至关重要的作用。翻译中的理解和表达都是在具体的语境中进行的, 语义的确定、选词造句、篇章结构以及语体形式均离不开语境。因此, 语境构成了正确翻译的基础。教师在指导学生翻译实践时, 不但理解原文必须紧扣语境, 反复琢磨, 译语表达也必须密切联系语境, 准确达意传神。
上面列举的几种翻译学习策略有的适用于整个翻译过程, 有的适用于翻译过程的某一阶段, 这几种翻译学习策略是互相联系的, 可以彼此促进和补充, 学生在实际翻译的过程中, 可以交替应用几种策略, 在教学中, 老师也要指导学生根据具体情况灵活使用。
[参考文献]
[1] 刘明东. 图式在翻译过程中的应用[J].外语教学, 2002
[2] 王甦, 汪安圣.认知心理学[M]. 北京: 北京大学出版社.1992
[3] 宋振羽.语用学教程[M].北京: 北京大学出版社.2000
[4] 熊学亮.认知语用学概论[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版社.1999
English Course: How to Live the Good Life Instructor：蒲红梅
Syllabus
E. Week 1 (March 07): Unit 1 English Study & Course Introduction
E. Week 2 (March 14): Unit 2 Happiness
E. Week 3 (March 21): Unit 3 Romantic Love
E. Week 4 (March 28): Unit 4 Discussion Skills
E. Week 5 (April 11): Unit 5 Personality
E. Week 6 (April 18): Unit 6 Willpower
E. Week 7 (April 25): Unit 7 Soft Skills & EQ
E. Week 8 (May 9): Unit 8 Work Orientations
E. Week 9 (May 16 ): Unit 9 Debate Skills
E. Week 10 (My 23): Unit 10 My Sister’s Keeper
E. Week 11 (May 30): Unit 11 Coping stress
E. Week 12 (June6): Students’ Speeches
Score Record 姓名: 学生证的学号： 上课用的组员号：
1. Public speech (上讲台对全班演讲1次 满分3分）
2. Two group leader tasks (轮流负责小组讨论2次 4分)
3. Six written speech outlines (课前写好在小组发言的详细提纲，交6次，6分)
4. Pre-class Reading (检查单词笔记10次, ) and In-class Participation (发言,问答,倾听,检查记录10次)
关于课程的几点中文说明：
课程定位为以英语为媒质的人文素养课。基本教学理念是意义优先，意义带动形式。同学是否关心话题的意义很重要，不过度强调英文口头表达的准确与流利，以免挫伤同学课堂交流的积极性，阻碍同学认知水平的提升和知识的积累。重要的是使同学思想保持活跃状态。所选的心理学问题力求与同学的人生体验相契合，鼓励同学用英文表达内心的思考与真实的情感。
设计课程遵循两个原则：一是内容的学习与语言的各项技能综合运用并重, 二是以学生为中心。内容方面，教师选编的材料都是围绕如何使人生美好幸福的探讨，设计了10个话题，包括 Happiness, Love, Personality, Gratitude等。材料多出自西方权威心理学家近期的研究成果。 形式方面, 涉及use-oriented language skills，包括课前的阅读讨论材料；课上的听说活动，有在小组内针对每周话题材料复述、翻译、讲解、讨论、辩论、分享个人见解、交流亲身体验；有上讲台面做演讲；有配合主题观看并讨论名人演讲或电影；此外课前要写详细的小组发言提纲。教室文化理想：同学为中心，教师辅助引导，重合作、重交流，互相倾听、彼此鼓励信任，每个人都乐于展示自我，大家共同创造或轻松幽默、或严肃认真、或激情迸发的英语人文教室。预期目标：use-oriented language skills 综合训练，有意义地使用英语；通过各项活动磨练“软技能”，提高情商；应用心理学理论指导自己 live a pleasant, engaged and meaningful life.
小问卷
姓名 学号 组号
1. _________年毕业于________________
2.对心理学的认识
3.英语学习在培养人文修养方面的作用
4.本科口语练习的经历（对话/讨论/演讲/辩论/英语角/其他）
5.英文电影及英剧/美剧的观赏体会
6.目前英语口头交流水平及主要障碍
7.提高口语水平的动机
8.提高口语水平的措施
Unit 1 English Study: Two Voices
Jay Walker on the world's English mania
their English by __1_____ it. Teacher: ... change my life! Students: I will change my life. T: I don't want to let my parents down. S: I don't want to let my parents down. T: I don't ever want to let my country down. S: I don't ever want to let my country down. T: Most importantly ... S: Most importantly ... T: I don't want to let myself down. S: I don't want to let myself down. How many people are trying to learn English worldwide? __ _2___ of them. Students: A t-shirt. A dress. In Latin America, in India, in Southeast Asia, and most of all in China. If you are a Chinese student you start learning English in the third grade, __ 3____. That's why this year China will become the world's largest English-speaking country.
Why English? In a single word: _____4______________________________________________. Imagine a student taking a giant test for three full days. Her score on this one test literally determines her future. She studies 12 hours a day for three years to prepare. 25 percent of her grade is based on English. It's called the Gaokao, and 80 million high school Chinese students have already taken this grueling test. The intensity to learn English is almost unimaginable, unless you witness it. Teacher: Perfect! Students: Perfect! T: I want to speak perfect English. S: I want to speak perfect English. T: I want to speak -- S: I want to speak -- T: perfect English. S: perfect English. T: I want to change my life! S: I want to change my life!
So is English mania good or bad? Is English a tsunami啸, washing away other languages? Not likely. English is the world's second language. Your native language is your life.
But with English ___________5______________________: a global conversation about global problems, like climate change or poverty, or hunger or disease. The world has other universal languages. Mathematics is the language of science. Music is the language of emotions.
And now English ___6______________________________________. Not because America is pushing it, but because the world is pulling it. So English mania is a turning point. Like the harnessing of electricity in our cities or the fall of the Berlin Wall, English ____7______________________-- a future where the world has a common language to solve its common problems.
Keys
1 Listen as Chinese students practice their English by
2 How many people are trying to learn English worldwide?
3 If you are a Chinese student you start learning English in the third grade, 4 Why English? In a single word: 5 But with Englisha global conversation about
global problems,
6 And now English .
7 English-- a future where the world has a common language to
solve its common problems.
Discussion:
1. What was your personal English learning experience? Did English offer you more opportunities in the past? Or was it a barrier on your way to pursue your dream?
2. List the possible benefits of English in your future life and career.【讨论英语】
3. What do you think of Chen Danqing‟s protest against the current system for selecting students? (“The requirement on English ability has blocked many talented students from entering higher education institutions.” “For four consecutive years, we couldn’t recruit any graduate students because none of the applicants could pass the school’s English exam, so I resigned.”)
Conversational Expressions:
I agree. So do I. Me too. Me neither. I don't either.
You're right. That's right. Good idea.
I disagree. I don't think so. (No.) That's not right. (I'm sorry, but) I don't agree.
For example/For instance, Let me explain/ Let me illustrate.
Let me tell you a little more. Let me give you some details. To give you more information,
海
Unit 2 The Science of Happiness
Psychologist Nettle’s classification of three levels of happiness
Level one. The most immediate and direct senses of happiness involve an emotion or feeling, something like joy or pleasure. These feelings are transient.
Level two is a combination of emotion and evaluation of satisfaction with various life domains.
Level three. The broader sense of happiness is Aristotle‟s ideal of the good life, a life in which we fulfill our true potential, we flourish.
Psychologists’ happiness formula: H=S+C+I
H is our lasting/enduring level of happiness.
S is our set-point for happiness. Professor Lykken showed about 50 per cent of individual differences in human happiness - how one feels at the moment and also how one feels on average over time - is due to genetic factors. The set-point for happiness is our brain‟s default level of happiness, the stable point around which our mood varies over periods. We react strongly to both positive and negative recent events with sharp increases or decreases in happiness, but return to our happiness set-point over relatively short periods of time. We adapt to new conditions over time. Adaptation is, in part, just a property of neurons: nerve cells respond vigorously to new stimuli, but gradually they “habituate”, firing less to stimuli that they have become used to. As a result people‟s overall happiness tends to stay the same. So people who try to be happy are a bit like rats on a treadmill, running and running, but not really getting anywhere. Brickman and Campbell coined the term „hedonic treadmill‟ to describe this process of rapid adaptation.
C, standing for the circumstances of our life, includes facts about your life that you can't change (race, sex, age, disability) as well as things that you can (wealth, marital status, where you live). Some scientists suggest that all life circumstances and situations together account for only about 10 percent in how happy different people are. Circumstances are constant over time, so you are likely to adapt to them. Changing these circumstances is usually impractical and expensive. According to empirical analysis, money, age, gender, parenthood, intelligence and physical attractiveness are not very important to happiness. Health, religion, and social activity are somewhat important. Love and marriage, work, and personality are very important to happiness.
I represent factors under our voluntary/intentional control. 40 percent of our happiness lies in our
power to change our life through how we act and how we think. Professor Lyubomirsky‟s study shows some activities can enhance happiness: e.g. 1) Nurturing Social Relationships, 2) Expressing Gratitude,
3) Taking Care of Your Body, 4) Practicing Religion and Spirituality, 5) Avoiding Negative Social
Comparison, 6) Savoring Life's Joys, 7) Cultivating Optimism., 8) Learning to Forgive.
Discussion
1 What give you momentary pleasures? 2 Are you satisfied with your past? 3 Are you optimistic about your future? 4 What do you estimate is the set-point of happiness (on a scale of 1to 10)? 5 Illustrate “hedonic treadmill” with some of your own experience. 6 How important is money/love/work to your happiness? 7 Work out your own happiness formula and share it with your group mates.
Conversational Expressions:
something here? Could I inject something here? Do you mind if I jump in here? : Excuse me? Could you repeat that? Could you say that again? What did you say? Did you say . . . ?I'm sorry. I didn't catch that. What do you mean (by that)? What are you trying to say? Could you clarify that?
MR NOLAN : Ladies and gentlemen, boys, the light of knowledge.
One hundred years ago, in 1859, 41 boys sat in this room and were asked the same question that now greets you at the start of each semester. Gentlemen, what are the four pillars?
BOYS Tradition, honor, discipline, excellence.
In her first year, Welton Academy| graduated five students. Last year, we graduated 51 and more than 75% of those went on to the Ivy League. This, this kind of accomplishment is the result of fervent dedication to the principles taught here. This is why you parents have been sending us your sons. This is why we are the best preparatory school大学预备学校 in the United States. As you know our beloved Mr Portius of the English Department retired last term. You will have the opportunity later to meet his replacement Mr John Keating himself an honors graduate of this school. And who, for the past several years. has been teaching at the highly regarded倍受赞誉 Chester School in London.
Episode 2 (11:45-16:45)
KEATING: "O Captain! My captain!" Who knows where that comes from? Anybody. Not a clue? It's from a poem by Walt Whitman about Mr. Abraham Lincoln. Now, in this class, you can either call me Mr. Keating...or if you're slightly more daring大胆O Captain, my Captain. Now let me dispel a few rumors, so they don't fester into facts. Yes, l, too, attended Hell-ton and have survived. And, no, at that time I was not the mental giant you see before you. I was the intellectual equivalent of a 98-pound weakling我的智识之低如同体重98磅者之弱. I would go to the beach, and people would kick copies of Byron in my face.
Now, Mr. Pitts? That's a rather unfortunate name. Mr. Pitts, where are you? Mr. Pitts? Would you open your hymnal赞美诗集 to page 542 and read the first stanza诗节of the poem you find there? PITTS: "To The Virgins to Make Much of Time"? 赠处女珍惜光阴
Yes. That's the one. Somewhat appropriate, isn't it?
PITTS: "Gather ye rosebuds while ye may, 花开堪折直需折old time is still a-flying and this same flower that smiles today, tomorrow will be dying."
Thank you, Mr Pitts. "Gather ye rosebuds while ye (古)你们may." The Latin term for that sentiment is carpe diem. Now who knows what that means?
Very good, Mr. ... Meeks. Meeks. Another unusual name. Seize the day. "Gather ye rosebuds while ye may." Why does the writer use these lines?
CHARLIE - Because he's in a hurry.
No, ding! Thank you for playing anyway. Because we are food for worms, lads. Because, believe it or not, each and every one of us in this room is one day going to stop breathing, turn cold, and die. Now I would like you to step forward over here and peruse some of the faces from the past. You've walked past them many times. I don't think you've really looked at them. They're not that different from you, are they? Same haircuts, full of hormones, just like you. Invincible, just like you feel. The world is their oyster. They believe they're destined for great things, just like many of you. Their eyes are full of hope, just like you. Did they wait until it was too late to make from their lives even one iota of 一点what they were capable? Because you see, gentlemen, these boys are now fertilizing daffodils. But if you listen real close, you can hear them whisper their legacy to you. Go on, lean in. Carpe. Hear it? Carpe. Carpe. Carpe Diem. Seize the day boys, make your lives extraordinary.
Business is closed at this price. 交易就按此价敲定。
Your price inacceptable (unacceptable). 你方价格可以（不可以）接受。 Your price is feasible (infeasible). 你方价格是可行（不可行）的。 Your price is workable. 你们出价可行。
Your price is realistic (unrealistic). 你方价格合乎实际（不现实）。 Your price is reasonable (unreasonable). 你方价格合理（不合理）。
Your price is practicable (impracticable). 你方价格是行得通的（行不通）。 Your price is attractive (not attractive). 你方价格有吸引力（无吸引力）。 Your price is inducing (not inducing). 你方价格有吸引力（无吸引力）。 Your price is convincing (not convincing). 你方价格有吸引力（无吸引力）。 Your price is competitive (not competitive). 你方价格有竞争力（无竞争力）。 The goods are (not) competitively priced. 此货的定价有（无）竞争力。 Price is turning high(low). 价格上涨（下跌）。
Price is high(low). 价格高（低）。
Price is rising (falling). 价格上升（下降）。
Price is up (down). 价格上涨（下跌）。
Price is looking up. 价格看涨。
Price has skyrocketed.价格猛涨.
Price has shot up. 价格飞涨。
Price has risen perpendicularly. 价格直线上升。
Price has risen in a spiral. 价格螺旋上升。
Price has hiked. 价格急剧抬高。
Your price is on the high side. 你方价格偏高。
Price has advanced. 价格已上涨。
The goods are priced too high. 货物定价太高。
Your price is rather stiff. 你方价格相当高。
Price is leveling off. 价格趋平。
Your price is prohibitive. 你方价格高得令人望而却步。
The Japanese yen is strengthening. 日圆坚挺。
The U.S. Dollar is weakening. 美圆疲软。
Your price is much higher than the price from U.K. France and Germany. 你方价格比英、法、德的都高。
Since the prices of the raw materials have been raised, Im afraid that we have to adjust the prices of our products accordingly. 由于原材料价格上涨，我们不得不对产品的价格做相应的调整。
Your price is $500/mt, twice of the other countries. 你们每公吨500美圆的价格是其他国家的两倍。
Is it possible for you to raise (lift) the price by 5%? 你们能否把价格提高5%？
Words and Phrases
ceiling price 最高价，顶价
maximum price 最高价
minimum price 最低价
average price 平均价格
base price 底价
rockbottom price 最低价
bedrock price 最低价
price 价格，定价，开价
priced 已标价的，有定价的
pricing 定价，标价
priced catalogue 定价目录
price of commodities 物价
pricing cost 定价成本
price card 价格目录
pricing method 定价方法
price list 定价政策，价格目录，价格单
pricing policy 定价政策
price format 价格目录，价格表
price tag 价格标签，标价条
price current (p.c.) 市价表
英文论文讨论部分写作（转自丁香园）
“讨论”部分非常重要。在这部分，你要把“结果”中展示的证据线索和“引言”中的背景资料关联起来。遗憾的是，许多作者(特别是来自非英语国家的作者)常常不够重视“讨论”部分，认为只需把结果罗列出来，然后让读者自行去得出结论即可。但是，给出结果而不说明其意义只会造成随意解读，从而影响研究获得应有的影响力。而期刊编辑往往希望论文能推进该研究领域，并形成影响；所以有必要善用“讨论”部分来尽可能增强论文的影响力。
好的“讨论”可以在开头先重申一下“引言”中提出的研究问题和假设，接着总结一下你的主要研究结果。这样一来，读者对于你是否推进了该领域的研究就一目了然了。从最重要或最相关的结果写起，然后再转向相对次要的内容。此刻暂不要讨论有争议或者难以解释的结果。这个阶段，你只须描述那些能直接回答“引言”中提出的问题或与假设直接相关的主要结果。不要用那些数据不支持的“大而空”的语言，也不要夸大结果的重要性。用“suggests” 比用“shows”更好，切忌使用 “proves”。此外，要尽量不要重复结果”部分的内容，而只需简要说明主要结果然后再谈其含意。这部分需要变换时态，叙述你的结果以及文献结果时用过去时，论述其意义时用现在时。
“讨论”的第二部分常被忽视，并往往造成拒稿。重申问题和结果之后，还需要陈述其相关性和重要性。你需要把你的结果放在文献研究背景中加以比较，并讨论其意义。这部分构成了“讨论”主体；他告诉读者(当然还有编辑)：从已有文献的基础上来评价，你的结果到底有什么意义？它们与其他研究者的工作之间存在什么关联。你的研究可能存在备择解释，对此应予提及并尽可能排除(或者至少论证它们的可能性很低)。如果仍有备择解释无法排除，你的研究就属于“尚未完成”，或者至少是“尚在进行中”；在这种情况下，你需要在“讨论”的结尾部分，提出将开展哪些实验来进一步排除备择解释或确认哪种解释才是正确的。
主要结果和背景的关系理清之后，就可以提及有争议或难以解释的发现，并提出可能的解释。没问题，这里你可以猜测，只要不要太过分。关键的问题是，你讨论和阐述了这些问题，而不是置之不理。“讨论”部分不能出现新术语或新结果；所有结果都该在“结果”部分叙述完整；所有术语也应在“引言”中就提出。最后，“讨论”部分要解释一下此研究的局限性。与其等审稿人指出，不如自己提出；这样也许反而会增加正面审稿意见从而缩短发表周期。一个研究存在局限性本身并不是问题，大多数研究都有这样那样的局限性。所以重要的是要承认它并提出在进一步研究中如何克服。在阐述完局限性之后往往紧接着就是描述未来的研究。
有些期刊有单独的“结论”部分；就算没有，也要在“讨论”的最后一段点明研究的结论。最后一段 (或最后一部分)应简要复述一下主要研究结果及其重要性，陈述该研究如何推进了本领域的研究，但不要用完全相同的语言。要提及结果的新颖性和重要性，但再说一次，不要夸大其词。如有必要可以提出进一步研究，如果本工作是初步研究则进一步研究可放在最后
一句。若不是初步研究，就可以用明确的措施来总结本研究的影响，但仍要注意不要夸大其词。。
示例
下图节选自《The Journal of Clinical Investigation》上一论文的讨论部分
(doi:10.1172/JCI37622； 经同意转载)。其中显示了讨论部分的一些要素，其末尾是一个结论段落。
核对清单
1. 开始先复述研究问题，然后陈述主要结果。
2. 过去时叙述结果，现在时谈意义。
3. 将研究结果同现有文献作比较，陈述其意义。
4. 陈述所有结果的意义，不要忽略那些“不便提及”的内容。
5. 不要在“结果”部分简单重复其他部分已有的内容，不得引入新术语/报告新结果，或夸大其词。
6. 给出本研究的局限性和将来研究方向。
7. 结尾用明确的措辞陈述本研究的相关性和重要性。
英文原文
Discussion: what does it all mean?
The discussion section of your manuscript is critically important. It is where you pull
together all the „threads‟ of evidence you have presented in the results in the context of the background you presented in the introduction. Unfortunately, many authors, particularly those from non-English-speaking countries, overlook the importance of this section
considering it sufficient to merely present their results and allow the reader to draw their own conclusions. However, presenting your results without describing their implications leaves them open to interpretation and reduces the impact they could have. Journal
editors want papers that will advance the field and generate an impact; therefore, use the discussion wisely to maximize the impact of your findings.
A good discussion will begin by restating the study question and any hypotheses presented in the introduction. This should be followed by a summary of the major findings of your study so that it is immediately clear how you have advanced the field. Start with the most important or relevant finding and then move to progressively less important ones.
However, do not yet discuss results that are perhaps controversial or difficult to explain. At this stage you only want to describe the major findings that directly answer the research question you set out in the introduction and/or those that directly relate to your
hypotheses. Avoid making grand statements that are not supported by your data and/or overstating the importance of your findings. The word “suggests” is preferable to “shows”, and the word “proves” should never be used. Also, there should be minimal repetition with the results section, with only brief descriptions of the main findings required before
launching into their implications. A mixture of tenses is required, with the past tense used to describe individual results and the results of previous studies, and the present tense used to describe their implications.
The next part is the component of a discussion that is often overlooked and a frequent cause of rejection from journals. Having reiterated your initial question and major findings, you need to describe their relevance and significance. This is where you put your findings into the context of previously published literature and discuss their implications. This part forms the bulk of the discussion section, showing the reader (and importantly, the journal editor) what your findings actually mean in the light of the existing literature and how they relate to the efforts of others. All possible alternative interpretations of your study should be described and excluded (or at least shown to be unlikely) wherever possible. If
alternative interpretations remain viable, the study is considered „incomplete‟, or at least ongoing, and experiments to rule out the alternatives or determine which of the
alternatives is correct should be described at the end of the discussion section as future research.
Once the major findings have been put into context, any controversial or difficult to explain findings should be mentioned along with plausible explanations for them. It is perfectly OK to speculate here (but not too wildly), but it is absolutely essential that these findings, and any inconsistencies, are discussed and addressed rather than ignored. No new results or terms should be introduced in the discussion section; all findings should be described in the results section and relevant terms will all have been introduced in the introduction
section. Finally, any limitations of the current study should be explained. Peer reviewers are likely to comment on such limitations anyway, so it is best to be „up front‟ about them and state what they were; doing so might even improve your chances of a positive peer review and thereby shorten the time to publication. The fact that your study has certain limitations is not a problem in itself, and most studies have limitations of some sort. It is therefore important to acknowledge these and describe how they can be addressed in future research. For this reason, the description of limitations is usually followed by a description of future research.
Some journals have a separate conclusions section, but even in those that don‟t, the same content should be merged with the discussion and contained in the last paragraph. This final section/paragraph should briefly restate the key findings and their significance,
describing how your study represents an advance in the field, but avoiding direct repetition. The novelty and significance of these findings should be mentioned, but again, it is important not to over-emphasize either of these. Future studies should be mentioned where relevant, and can be the subject of the final sentence if the current study is
preliminary. If your study is not preliminary, end with a strong statement that summarizes the impact of the study without over-stating its importance.
Example
The figure below, showing excerpts from the discussion section of paper published in The Journal of Clinical Investigation (doi:10.1172/JCI37622; reproduced with permission), shows some of the important components of a discussion section and the concluding paragraph at the end.
Checklist
1. Start by restating the problem/research question and then state the main findings of your study
2. Describe results in the past tense, but implications in the present tense
3. Put findings in the context of the existing literature to describe their implications
4. Describe the implications of all results obtained; do not ignore „inconvenient‟ ones
5. Avoid repetition, introducing new terms or results, and making grand statements about the importance of your findings
6. Describe the limitations of your study and future directions for research in the field
7. End with a strong statement describing the relevance and significance of your study
用英语讨论时间及时间相关的英语知识
一、情景对话
What time is it?
几点钟了？
It’s two o’clock.
两点钟。
It’s a few minutes after two.
两点过几分。
My watch is fast and your watch Is slow.
我的表快，而你的表慢。
Excuse me.Can you tell me the correct time?
对不起，你能告诉我一下准确的时间吗？
No,I can’t .
不，我不能。
I don’t know what time it is.
我不知道现在几点钟。
I don’t think it’s four o’clock yet.
我认为现在还不到四点。
It must be about three thirty.
现在想必是三点三十分左右。
I get up before six o’clock every day.
每天我六点前起床。
本文来源：http://www.gbppp.com/jy/452482/
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