【www.gbppp.com--英语学习】
1．中式英语的概述
“中式英语”，顾名思义，也就是我们常说的Chinglish汉语语法的现象。这一词是用截短法（clipping）将Chinese和English两个单词结尾去头而合并成的。中国的英语学习者使用者由于受母语的干扰和和影响，硬套汉语规则和习惯，在英语交际中不合规范或不合英语文化习惯的畸形英语。
2．中式英语产生的原因
2.1 汉英思维过程的差异是导致中式英语产生的主要原因
所谓的英语思维过程其实就是：说英语国家的人听到或者看到英文时，大脑能直接理解其含义，而不用借助另一种语言；想表达自己的想法时，也是大脑直接出现其含义随之用口、笔表达出来，同样不借助另一种语言。对我们中国人来说，在听到、看到一个英文单词的时候，大脑对这个词的理解过程可能有两种情况，即直接理解（英语思维）和借助于汉语翻译而理解（汉语思维）。具体说，用英语思维直接理解过程是：英语词汇-含义-理解；而汉语思维的理解过程是：英语词汇-汉语对应词汇-含义-理解。可见，汉语思维的过程中比英语思维多了一个在脑中出现汉语对应词汇的过程，这个过程就是我们说的翻译过程，或者就是我们所说的“心译”。而在这个“心译”过程一方面减慢了听着的反应速度，另一方面也引入了汉语思维，直接为中式英语的产生种下了 “毒瘤”。
2.2 东西方文化之间的差异
要了解西方国家的文化和风土人情，重点了解中西文化差异及其不同表达方式，才能使交际有效 如：Jack is a green hand at doing this work.（杰克做这种工作没有经验）这里“green hand”意思是“生手”、“没有经验”，而不是“绿色的手”之意。英国是个岛国，船是重要交通工具，为保养船只，常用与海水一样的绿色油漆来漆船。一个不熟练的油漆工，工作时常会双手粘满油漆。了解了这一背景，“green hand”之意就不喻自明。
由此可见，只有了解西方文化，才会理解以上修辞的意义。又如中西方对于狗的看法基本上可以说是相反的。西方人对狗的感情不亚于对人的感情，说某人幸运时就说他是个lucky dog,说人总有出头之日时就说Every dog has his day,比喻“欲加之罪，何患无词”就说Give a dog a bad name and hang him,均以狗喻人，而且用指人的he或she,不但自己爱狗，而且要求别人也爱，说Love me, love my dog（爱屋及乌）。而中国人向来对狗没有什么好感，虽然现在学习西方，养狗的人多起来，人们对狗的看法也在变化，但总体上是不好的，仍然会自觉或不自觉地流露在语言里。如：“狗血喷头”、“狗屁不通”、“狗急跳墙”、“狗胆包天”、“狐朋狗友”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“狗崽子”、“走狗”、“丧
家狗”、“狗眼看人低”、“狗改不了吃屎”、“猪狗不如”、“狗嘴里吐不出象牙”等等，没有一句是好话。再比如，中国人对古代传说中的“龙”怀有至高无上的尊重，“龙”是封建时代皇帝的象征，又是中华民族的象征，故有“龙的传人”、“龙子龙孙”的说法。“龙”的常用含义是“出人头地”，当今，做父母的仍然“望子成龙”心切。而西人对“龙”没有好感，在西方文化里，“龙”是一种喷烟吐火、凶残可怕的怪物，在英语口语中“dragon”指的是“凶恶的人”，而“亚洲四小龙”被译为“four tigers”。
2.3语言习惯的不同
在校园中，这些现象并不陌生。学生与外籍教师见面 ：“Have you had your breakfast ？” “Where are going?” 这些打招呼的话在我们听起来是理所当然的，中国人面打招呼通常是：你吃过了吗？然而英美人对这些寒暄习惯会莫名其妙。如打电话时会说：“Hello! I am Jim. Who are you ？I want Mr Jackson .” 短短几句话就不符合英美人打电话的习惯。这些口头上的中式英语是否只是一个 语言习惯问题？归根结底是英语学习者用汉语思维模式来取代英语思维模式，往往会逐字理解、对释，这种一一对应的错误模式违反了英语表达规律。
如：[误]Today is very close.（今天天气很闷）英语语法中表示天气时间和距离，常用it做主语。[正]It is very close today.
又如：[误]Sorry： I forget my dictionary at home. （对不起，我把字典忘在家里了） 这是按照汉语的字面意思来表达，动词“forget”在表示“忘记带某物”时，不与地点状语连用连用。该句正确表达是“I left my dictionary at home.”
另外，中国人注重辩证思维因而发明了一些雷人的短语。这些自创式的英语表达，含有非常浓的汉语表达习惯
1．good good study ,day day up.
好好学习，天天向上
2．horse horse tiger tiger .
马马虎虎
3．How are you ?
怎么是你？
4．How old are you?
怎么老是你？
5．give you color to see see.
给你点颜色看看
3．中式英语的表现形式
3.1 语音
中国学生在碰到自己无法读出的某些音标时，经常使用汉语谐音来替代英语的正确发音。例如“ thank you 三克油，English沟里洗”等等。直接出现这些显而易见的中式英语。
3.2 词汇
在词汇方面，中国学生经常出现中式英语，主要有六类。即生搬硬套、用词不当、搭配不当、重复和累赘、过多使用修饰词、褒贬误用等。
3.2.1生搬硬套
例如，学生经常把一些英语词汇短语按汉语习惯来翻译，把“吃药”译成“eat
medicine”， 把“注意身体”译成“notice your body”，“贵阳”译成 “the expensive sun”等等，没有按照英语语法规则，生套汉语语法规则。
3.2.2用词不当
例如：事故就发生在公园外。
中式表达：The accident was happened just outside the park.
正确表达：The accident happened just outside the park.
例句中的误用部分，存在着非及物动词的及物化和被动化的错误现象。这是因为
happen一词的汉语意思是“发生”，该词在汉语中后可直接宾语，因此学生按该词汉语的使用习惯，将happen当及物动词来使用，于是出现了用词不当的错误。
3.2.3词汇搭配不当
例如：食堂的蔬菜价格很贵。
中式表达：The price of the vegetables in the dining hall is very expensive.
正确表达：The price of the vegetables in the dining hall is very high.
例句中属于典型的词汇搭配不当。学生在学习“expensive”时，只记住了汉语的字面意思，即“贵”，却不知词汇的搭配。大家都知道，当表示某物品 “贵”时，可用“expensive”，但表示价格的“高”时，则应该用“high”来表示。
3.2.4重复和累赘
例如：他名叫史密斯。
His name is called Smith.
例如：他的身体很健康。
His body is healthy.
name 和body 都是不必要的词。
3.2.5 过多使用修饰词
例如：“彻底粉碎”completely smash, “smash”本身意思就是break completely, 已经包含了“彻底”的意思，加上completely语气反而弱化。
3.2.6 褒贬误用
例如，如果我们对一位美国朋友说“Is that old man sitting there your father?”，他一定很不高兴，但如果将old改为edly，情况就大不一样。因为old有“老而无用”的意思，而eldly则有“年长受尊敬”之意。
3.3 句子结构不当
英语和汉语的句子结构差异颇大，英语是主语+谓语的结构，而汉语是话题+说明的结构。汉语中无主语或无动词的句子比比皆是，而英语句子的主语和动词不可或缺。汉语句子倾向于头大尾小的“狮子型”，而英语句子则是前短后长的“孔雀开屏型”
如：I very much like David Beckham.
其实这种说法还是比较普遍的。very 虽说是个副词，但是并不能像一般的副词一样，放在副词前面修饰动词，所以very有自己独特的用法。这句话正确的写法是：I like David Beckham very much. 但是老外更习惯于说 I am a huge fan of David Beckham; I am insanely crazy about him; I could think of nobody that tops him; 其次，在口语表达中，很多学生习惯于用very good这种表达方式。还有其它的一些表达，譬如incredible, amazing, unbelievable, impressive，awesome等等。
又如：在一个不说英语的国家学习英语是很困难的事情。
Studying English in a country where people don’t speak it is difficult.【大学英语论文】
这个句子中文句子的结构，显得头重脚轻，地道的说法是：
It’s difficult to study English in a non-English speaking country.
3.4 时态、单复数及时态不当
汉语属于分析性语言，其语法关系主要通过词汇和语序来表达，并不存在英语中相对应的时态和单复数，词性也主要由词语在句中的位置决定。因此，时态、单复数和词性的掌握和运用对于学生来说也是难点。
例如：穷人也可以活的很幸福。
[误] A poor man can also live happiness.
[正] A poor man can also live a happy life.
3.5 关联词的错误
中文里面可以连用“虽然”、“但是”，而英语里面的“although (though)”却不可以和“but”连用，这是学生容易出错的地方。
例如：虽然不喜欢开会，但我还是去了。
[误] Although I don’t like meetings, but I still went.
[正] Although I don’t like meetings, I still went.
3．避免中式英语的对策
由于母语、文化因素或思维方式的干扰，在英语学习过程中存在一些中式英语是在所难免的。我们要本着客观的态度对待。但是，在教学过程中要尽可能的避免中式英语还是可能的，下面提出这样几点对策。
3.1 培养语感
众所周知，英语教学中最重要的是要培养学生的语感。要快速提高语感，就要培养学生的阅读兴趣和习惯。为了避免学生把汉语的语法、句型生搬硬套到英语中去，就要注意其模仿能力，而阅读恰恰有助于模仿。在选择阅读材料时，应该选择一些符合真实生活的英美作品，可以说这些作品是了解社会文化背景的最生动最丰富的材料。
3.2 采用中英对比教学法，有意识地克服中式英语。
教师在讲授语言的同时，应该注意文化差异的对比讲解，运用对比分析的方法，帮助学生掌握汉语和英语的文化差异。教师还要针对生活中的细枝末节的问题，联系两种语言的文化习惯、背景、引导学生加以对比，进行双文化教学。
3.3 注重汉英翻译训练
通过汉英翻译练习，尤其是段落翻译，学生可以对比这两种语言在不同层面上的特点和规律，从而巩固已有的语言知识，避免中式英语。
3.4 加强语篇结构训练
学生对篇章结构的认识和理解能力越强，其写作水平就越高。因此，教师应加强语篇水平上的阅读教学，引导学生进行整体阅读，分析文章教学，引导学生进行整体阅读，分析文章。
3.5 Activity(常练习)：学习一门新技能的唯一有效方法就是不断练习你所学到的。要想学骑自行车的话，不能光看别人骑；如果不自己登上车子练习，你永远也学不会。学外语也是一样的道理——你得不断练习开口说才行„„然而大多数英语学习者没有机会
大学英语教学论文:从功能语言学视角谈 21 世纪新
形势下大学英语教学
发表时间：2013年12月17日17:37:50
21 世纪新的形势下，大学外语教师必须掌握一定的语言学理论来指导自己的教学，韩礼德所创立的系统功能语言理论学为大学英语教学改革提供了坚实的理论基础，该理论强调语言的系统性、功能性，重视培养学生的综合语言能力。基于此，从功能语言学的视角论述新形势下的大学外语教学，以期有助于推进大学外语教学改革的顺利进行。
在国际经济文化交流日益频繁的今天，作为国际通用语的英语吸引了越来越多的语言学家和英语教师不断在语言学领域里探求英语教学的理论支撑，韩礼德创立的系统功能语言学日益成为人们关注的焦点。该理论的教学目标是发展学生的“意义潜势”，这与当前新形势下教学改革的目标是一致的。在教学方法上，系统功能语言学主张采用包括交际教学法在内的适合于各种要求的教学方法。在教学模式上，系统功能语言学是现代化多媒体、网络教学的理论基石。在 21 世纪新的形势下韩礼德所创立的系统功能语言理论学为大学英语教学改革提供了坚实的理论基础，该理论强调语言的系统性、功能性，重视培养学生的综合语言能力。
因而，笔者试图从系统功能语言学视角分析大学英语教学的现状及问题，对新形势下大学英语教学进行探索，希望会推进大学外语教学改革的顺利进行。系统功能语言学的基本观点以人文主义思想为基础的系统功能语言学是由韩礼德所创建的，被誉为 20 世纪最有影响力的语言学理论。该理论认为语言是一个社会符号系统，主张从社会文化的角度来研究语言; 该理论强调语言的系统性、功能性，重视培养学生的综合语言能力，更强调语言的特殊性，认为语言的特殊性与语言的实际运用相关。韩礼德从语言运用的角度把语言的功能划分为概念功
能、人际功能及语篇功能; 语言系统是一个由语义层、词汇语法层、音系层所组成的多层次的系统，层次之间的关系是体现和被体现的关系; 从系统中进行选择便产生了在社会文化交际中实际应用的语言。
系统功能语法强调语言的语用研究。它较为科学合理地解释了语言的形式与功能的关系，把语言的功能概括为概念功能、人际功能和语篇功能。而这些功能与语言的各层次紧密联系，相辅相成。大学英语教学的现状分析由于我国的英语教学过去很长一段时间以来一直聚焦于学生的应试能力，而直接导致学生语言交际能力的培养几乎完全被忽视，使得中国广大英语学习者中的“哑巴英语现象”普遍存在。随着我国大学英语教学改革的不断深入，以及基于网络平台的大学英语教学模式的试行和推广，这一现象有了一定的改善，但同时在实施过程中仍存在着一些问题与不足，需要在加大教学投入、创设自主学习环境、更新教师观念、强化学生认知、完善考核标准等方面采取相应的措施加以解决。具体问题如下: 部分院校教学理念陈旧，对大学英语教学重视不够许多高校、尤其是理工院校没有对英语教学予以足够的重视，依然坚持陈旧的教学理念，很多高校近年来间接地减少大学英语教学的学分与课时量。大多数高校对大学英语实践教学不仅没有给予必要的投入，还开始削减大学英语教师的工作量和课时费，这些现象无形中也削减了大学英语教师的工作热情。在学分与课时减少的情况下，大学英语教师只能无奈地压缩教学内容，部分英语教师将自己精力转移到课外办英语辅导班上，这严重影响了大学英语的课堂教学质量。另外，大学英语课堂目前依旧普遍以大合班的形式上课，一个课堂往往学生人数达到 60 甚至 100 人以上，严重影响了语言课的课堂效果。
硬件投入过少，导致大学英语教学方式和教学手段严重滞后各高校教学硬件设施投入严重滞后，多媒体及网络教学无法实现，许多大学生没有机会进入语音室上课，就连最基本的多媒体授课都难以保障，直接导致了教学方法的单一、内容的滞后和师生的上课低迷的情绪。课堂上照本宣科的教学模式排斥了学生的参与意识，压制了他们学习的积极性，不利于大学生在教学中的主体地位的实现，
使大学英语流于形式。另外，大学英语考试依然在沿用传统考试的方法，相应考评手段也较为落后，评价方式单一，这些都有悖于加德纳的多元智力理论，根本无法全面考察出学生各方面的综合素质。
学生对大学英语的学习积极性、主动性不高学生在大学英语课堂学习的积极性不高，教学效果并不令人满意，大学生对大学英语有一定的逆反心理。学生的了无兴趣又会直接影响到教师的课堂情绪，造成恶性循环。很多学生只是被动地学习，学习动机不明确。学生的第二课堂没有被充分利用，以促进其对英语的学习兴趣。
功能语言学视角下的大学外语教学探索系统功能语言学认为语言是一个社会符号系统，主张从社会文化的角度来研究语言; 强调语言的系统性、功能性，重视培养学生的综合语言能力，更强调语言的特殊性，认为语言的特殊性与语言的实际运用相关。韩礼德从语言运用的角度把语言的功能划分为概念功能、人际功能及语篇功能，而这些功能与语言的各层次紧密联系，相辅相成。根据韩礼德的观点，大学外语教学改革应从以下几步做起:
强化外语教学的系统性和有效性教学内容、方法和手段的更新很大程度上取决于教育理念，因而增强大学英语教学的系统性和有效性，首先要从根本上转变观念。韩礼德认为语言是一个具有社会功能的系统，是一套开放的与语言运用的社会环境相联系的，供选择的“意义潜势”。因而语言教学的目标是使学生能形成这种“潜势”，并能根据语境，在“潜势”中选择适合语境的语言。高教职能部门应制定系统性的教学大纲，并根据各地区具体实际情况进行相应调整，以增强大学外语教学的系统性和有效性。高校教师则应根据学生的具体情况对教学计划、内容及形式作出适当调整，以利于培养学生的“意义潜势”，即语言的实际运用能力。另外笔者认为，为了提高大学外语教学的有效性，根据语言教学的特点，应有效控制大学外语课堂的学生人数，把课堂人数控制在 30 人左右，以进一步增强外语教学的系统性与有效性。
平衡外语教学的多层次性和全面性功能语言学还认为语言是多层次的，因而外语教学不能只停留在某个层次上，应该尽量让学生在语义层、词汇语法层及音位层等多层次上均衡发展，避免学生出现听、说、读、写、译能力的严重失衡。为了激发学生学习的积极性和主动性，必须平衡外语教学的多层次性和全面性，进一步完善大学英语教学的内容与形式。在整个教学过程中大学英语教师应突破教材的框架，补充教学内容，以动态教学的方式，将教材的内容与学生的兴趣和社会需求紧密结合，使之真正融入社会和学生的现实生活中去，以平衡外语教学的多层次性和全面性。
创设外语教学中的情景语境语境理论是功能语言学中重要的理论之一，即语言将随着情景的变化而变化。韩礼德认为语境中的“语场”、“语旨”和“语式”中任何一项发生变化都会产生不同类型的语域。在不同语境中所使用的语言，在形式上与功能上都会有很大的差别。为了使外语的教学中形成一个良性的循环，为了激发学生学习英语的兴趣，为了引导学生形成参与意识和参与行为，大学外语教学就必须进一步利用现代化的教学设备为学生创设情景语境。因为只有在一定的语境中才能真正实现学生的自然习得过程，从而推动大学外语教学改革的顺利进行，继而提高学生的语言应用能力与实践能力。
重视外语教学中语言的形式与功能长期以来，由于外语教学过多强调语言的形式，而忽略了语言的功能，直接导致了很多学生虽然掌握了大量的词汇和语法却不会应用; 而近年来有些教育单位走向了另一个极端，过度重视语言的功能而忽视了形式，又导致一些学生口若悬河，却错误连篇。事实证明韩礼德的功能语言学的观点是正确的，只有让外语教学中语言的形式与语言的功能并重，才能使学生全面掌握一门外语。
建立健全对优秀师生的奖励机制为了在大学外语教学中形成一个良性的循环，就必须要建立健全优秀师生的奖励和激励机制。首先，对于学习主体的大学生，要明确其学习动机，激发其学习兴趣，引导其参与意识，培养其主体精神和自主学习能力，开发其创造精神，促进其全面发展，从而推进教学改革的顺利进【大学英语论文】
行。其次，要通过各种手段奖励优秀的师生，想方设法提高教师的工作积极性，提升教师的责任意识、竞争意识和敬业精神，建立健全对优秀师生的激励和奖励机制，使大学英语教学实现质的转变，从而达到事半功倍的效果。
作为交际教学法的理论基础的系统功能语言学，主张在教学上适当地采用于各种教学方法，这一点正迎合了当前大学英语改革的需求; 韩礼德的系统功能语言学理论在教学模式上也为基于网络的多媒体教学提供了强有力的理论基础和支持。笔者从系统功能语言学视角分析了大学英语教学的现状及问题，对新形势下大学英语教学进行了探索，希望有助于推进大学外语教学改革的顺利进行。
On European international relations and tributary system in China
Class E.078 Name朱虹 Number: 07014648
Throughout the history, the foreign policy for a country plays an important role in developing the country. From very long time ago, the rules of society between western countries and China already have differences. And comes to the modern European international relations and the Chinese tributary system in history, there also has a lot to say in comparison. Absolutely they both have advantages and disadvantages. Meanwhile the reason that influences the rulers is essential for forming such systems. And I will figure the differences between them in the next.
First of all, the geographies between European countries and China are very different. As for China, it has a huge continent which is one of the largest countries in the world. And it has mild climate, and complex terrain. With these three commercial advantages and some different kinds of natural features in related regions, making China contains abundant natural resources. Therefore, China develops its self-sufficient economy very well, and it can meet the Chinese’s living needs. The Chinese people believe the harvest is the natural gift and is fastidious about beauty to unite and pay more attention to the human relations. What’s more, in ancient, China with this kind of economy became very rich and strong. The Chinese rulers don’t have to fight for food and money. They emphasized the moral education of "barbarians" and the treatment of them with courtesy, and his purpose is getting a peaceful environment for both suzerain itself and tributary states. While the cradle of the western culturess is Greece which is open wide and marine climate. People there needs to fight against the formidable natural conditions for ages. Hence, it builds them scientific traditions that to explore the nature and conquer the nature. The open-space natural geography also make them contact and communicate with the outside frequently. Gradually, they become more and more greedy and want more resources and wealth. So the European colonialist s simply conquered, slaughtered the aboriginals in pursuit of maximum profits.
Secondly, it turns to the development of the economy. Throughout the history, the agricultural economy appeared early and played a very important role. Further more, it took the way that making oxen pull the plows, and the irrigation works developed very well so that the successful agricultural techniques had also grown up. At the same time, the small-peasant economy became the basic model of the agricultural production. It based on households, men do the farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving, it combined the agriculture and the handicraft. This kind of self-sufficient natural economy was the basic form of the feudal economy. Including all these features of the small-peasant economy in ancient China, the Chinese people possessed a certain land, means of production such as farm implements or farm animal. So they had the enthusiasm for production. And they used their limited lands, tried their best to improve the farming technique, contributed greatly to the development of ancient China’s agriculture and agricultural economy. As a result, except the salt and iron, they do not need articles for daily use from outside, they can
live on their own. Therefore, it is the key of the problem. Chinese rulers with such a country, did not need to invade other countries. They just consider to keep the peace with the peripheral countries. So they emphasized the moral education of "barbarians" and the treatment of them with courtesy, and keep them safely away, as a means of safeguarding national security. On the contrary, in the Europe in about 14 and 15 century, western Europe began to explore the courses to east mainly because of four reasons. First is the objective cause for the cultures fragment and groups. And the subjective reason that is they want to get gold and luxury goods from the eastern countries. Thirdly, the root cause is the germ of the Economy of Capitalism. In the 14 and 15 century, as the productivity increased and the division of labor enlarged while the commodity money relationship developed fast and the market exchanged frequently, besides the popularity of technology primarily the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China. The Economy of Capitalism appeared. And the new air route opened up the narrow world, brought out the commercial revolution and price revolution. The development of the capital economy made European colonialists began the colonial expansions in pursuit of maximum profits.
Thirdly, from my own understanding, maybe it is the most important reason that effect on between China and European countries take the different attitude on the policy that towards other countries. That is the difference of cultures. And throughout the history, Chinese culture has a deep influences of Confucianism. Since the major thoughts of Confucianism has the point that paying attention to personal cultivation and the power of morality. Meanwhile it also praise highly of opposing force and laying stress on getting on well with both other people and nature, pursuing spiritual freedom. Additionally, Confucianism puts humanity and “piety” as the core of society construction. Therefore, Chinese rulers emphasized the moral education of “barbarians” and treated them with courtesy. What’s more, in Confucianism, there is another idea called golden mean. From my perspective, I consider it is also why Chinese rulers took different attitudes with modern European about treat other countries. The golden mean refers to the attitude that neither being too overhanging nor too fall behind about dealing with affairs in society. Hence, Chinese rulers just different with the Europeans, they did not take a risk and took the tributary systerms, kept a peaceful relationship with “barbarians”, as a means of safeguarding national security. So in history carried out Zhen He’s Voyage to the Western Seas. In Ming dynasty, the empire sent Zhen he leading large fleets full of money and valuables oceangoing voyage and they visited more than thirty countries and areas in West Pacific and Indian Ocean. The purpose of this voyage was not to pursuit of profits but publicize the Chinese culture and keep good relationship with those countries. Since Zhen He’s Voyage had political purpose rather than economical purpose, and its expense was all depending on Ming dynasty’s strong national strength to support, it brought no economic interests to China at all. At last it ended with decline of Ming dynasty’s national power. On the contrary , in western countries, the thought foundation was almost derived from the ideas of the Renaissance in Europe, however the source was ancient Greek and Roman culture, had been significant influenced by the Christian religion. What’ more, this kind of culture emphasize the importance of
personal freedom and individual rights, at the same time are more practice-oriented, being brave in exploring and adventurous. So this thought guided the westerners and they took the modern European international relations, and European colonialists simply conquered, slaughtered the aboriginals. Make a general survey of western modern history, the development of European capitalism always to be accompanied by violence and pillage.
Speaking of the merits and demerits, both these two systems have their own advantages and disadvantages. As for Chinese tributary system, from the positive aspect, as China is a strong country in Southeast Asia even around the world, it used this system to widely spread Chinese traditions and political ideas. And because of the connection, the tributary states developed their economy and benefited from China and kept a good relationship from each other. However the thought of Middle Kingdom made Chinese rulers self-satisfied and missed a lot of chances to reform. And the tributary depends on China too much also leaded to their end. Whereas for the modern European international relations, to the colonial states, they plundered the wealth of the colonies, changed it into capital and greatly promoted the European capitalist development. What’s more it broke the world’s relatively isolation, made the whole world become an entirety that interact and bonded together and definitely promoted the word integration. In addition, the colonialism brought the advanced production operation way, life styles and new ideas and promoted the colonies’ history and development. On the other hand, the colonialism was also a disaster and suffering to the colonies. It made the countries in Asia, Africa and Latin fall behind. What’s worse the hurt to their spirits could never be cured and had a terrible affect to their rest life and next generation.
All in all, no matter Chinese tributary system or modern European international relations, although they both have advantages and disadvantages, they conformed to the development requirements of the times. And for Chinese tributary system and modern European international relations, they both contributed to their cultural, economy, ideas and other aspects’ influences. Further more, they deeply effected the world has been the pattern and the development of human being history. As we college students, we’d face up to the problem and see through the appearance to perceive the essence so that we can improve our capability to parsing problems and cultivate own personality.
Qualities and Skills in Buck as a Leader
Abstract: The Call of the Wild is one of the masterpiece of Jack London. The hero, Buck, is a dog. Being an animal, Buck has many humanized abilities. London emphasizes the protagainst’s advantages so that readers can better understand Buck’s characters and inner spirit. This paper aims at an exploration of the qualities and skills in Buck as a leader in the novel though Buck’s returning to the wild. It analyizes the writing background, Buck’s attitude and behavior towards its master and the way the master treat Buck. It points out that a leader’s qualities and skills directly affect his leading efficiency and deals with how Buck struggles for the leadership. From one angle, Buck’s physical qualities, such as gigantic size and age, are the precondition and foundation for his successful leadership. Buck’s psychological qualities, for example, temperament and character, strong confidence and irony will, are the effective ensurance as a leader. From another angle, Buck possesses the skill of gaining leadership, he intelligently use every opportunity to change Spitz. After gaining the leadership,he solves the inner confilict and contradiction and builds more efficient group. In crucial circumstances, he has correct judgement and thus make wise dicision. The qualities and skills makes Buck an excellent leader. His spirits of challenging and facing difficulties and harderships, strong determination and courage, and never give up, are precious wealth for human beings to learn.【大学英语论文】
Key words: leadership, qualities, skills
摘要：《野性的呼唤》是杰克.伦敦哦呢的代表作之一。主人公巴克是一只狗，作为一只动作，巴克拥有许多人性化的能力。伦敦强调主人公的优点，一边读者能更好地理解巴克的性格和内涵。本篇论文旨在通过小说中的巴克回归自然探讨巴克作为领导者的素质与技巧；分析杰克.伦敦的写作背景，巴克对主人们的态度和行为以及主人们对待它的方式；指出一个领导者的能力与技巧如何直接关系到领导效果；探索巴克怎样争取到领导者的地位。从一个角度来看，巴克的身体素质，如体力因素和年龄因素是它作为领导者成功的前提和基础；巴克的心理素质，如气质与性格，坚韧的信心和意志是它做为领导者成功的有效保障。从另一个角度来看，巴克具有取得领导权力的技巧，抓住每次机会与领导史比茨较量；在取得领导权之后，解决内部冲突和矛盾，组建更为有效的领导集体；在危急关头，它做出正确的判断，以此进行决策。领导素质与领导技巧让巴克成为一个车色的领导者。他勇于挑战和面对艰难困苦的精神，坚韧不拔的信心与勇气，永不放弃的精神上值得人类学习的宝贵财富。 关键词：领导；领导素质；领导技巧
I. Introduction
1.1 The Historical Background
At the end part of the 19th century, American industrialism prospered. The issue of labor and market was settled and the civil war ended. With the repid expansion of land, America went into its prosperous period, just as Monk Iwain described “the gailded age”. Although Americans was rich enough, the competition between them was quite fierce. The whole country was like a jungle where the social phenomenon was “survival of the fittest”. Industry was the symbol of crudeness, mystery, harshness, primitive competition, force and elemental rage. In order to get status, honour and wealth, everyone competed with others cruelly. Buck was unwilling involved in the competition. Originally, he lived an easy life in the south and played with the children. Unfortunately, with the Gold Rush, people needed dog to serve as a tool of transportion. So Buck was sold to the gold rusher and befan a journey full of natural and social competition. Violence, depression, killing and blood were the realities he need to face and solve.
1.2 The Summery of the plot
The call of the wild is a novel by American writer Jack London. The plot concern a previously domesticate and even somewhat pampered dog named Buck, whose primordial instincts return after a series of event finds him serving as sled dog in the treacherous, frigid Yukon during the days of the 19th century Klondike Gold Rushes. The protagonist is Buck, a huge, four-year-old half-saint Bernad\rd and half-scottish shepherd dog, is living a live of civilized ease in California’s Santa clara valley in the home of Judge Miller. In the south, Buck lives a ease and comfortable life and cultivates the civilized and humble characters. In 1897, people find gold in Canada, then 100 person from everywhere to look for gold. Tragically, for Buck, one of the Judge’s servants can addictive gambler steals Buck and sells him to a rin of thieves who are making a great deal of money by buying and selling dogs to northern traders. Buck is thrown into the wildness, where he suffers from hunger and cruel treatment. Here what he see is savage. To surive, they have to fight and kill others at every moment. During this cruel abnd civilized training, he becomes canning and get rid of his civilized nature. His two owners served to transfer letters for the 100 government of Canada. He gradually adapts to new environment and wins the leadership and mastership of the whole dog pack. Latter, he has new owner who lack of experience, under their ignorance and cruel treatment, Buck falls down as a result of extreme tiredness. At this moment, Buck is saved by his last owner and they get along well with each other and becomes good friends. He devotes to his new owner and willing to sacrifice for him. But he is inspined by the call of the wild. At lat, 100 after his new owner’s death, he returns to the wild and becomes the alpha male of a wolf pack.
2. Buck’s Qualities as a Leader
2.1 Buck’s BODY Qualities
2.1.1. From one point, healthy and strong body is the first important component of a leader, because as a leader, he has o edure and adjust many particular demands, and tolerate complicated and chamgeable problems. Physical strength is one of the ensurance of leader efficiency. To any leader, possessing physical qualities is of great significance. From another point, Buck, whose father, Elmo, a huge St.Bernard and mother, shep, a scotch shepherd dog. He has one hundred and forty pounds. He is a tidewater dog, “with strong muscles by which to toil, and fury coats to protect them from the frost.” (page1.)
At this time, because men, groping in the Arctic darkness, find a yellow metal, and because steamship and transportation companies boom the find, thousand of men were rushing into the Northland. These men want dogs to meet their needs. Dogs, like Buck, are exactly what men need. For examples, Buck’s first master Francois and Perraut quickens their journey so as to deliver letters in time. But the bad weather worsens their speed. Buck and his team dogs pull the sledas fast as before by means of their strong muscles. In no less than three days, they arrive in Five Fingers. In the Arctic, the land numb and frozen under its pall of snow, they must be careful and smart enough to avoid fulling into the snow hole. Dogs like Buck are trained to experience all kinds of risks, they are the ideal transportation for the gold seeker.
2.2 Buck’s Psychological Qualities.
To be a leader, psychological heath and balanced is as important as physical health and balance. In the south, Buck lived a civilized and dignified life. After he knows he has been sold, he tries his best to protect his dignity and pride, but failed. His heart is full of terror, worry, and unrest. Everytime he fights against unfair treatment, he is beaten severely. He learns the law of Club and Fang, he must obey no matter how bitter and painful he feels. He understands at this crucial
disadvantage, archival and the leader of Francois’s sled team, spitz, always brutally bite and fight with him. Sometimes Buck avoid it deftly to wait for suitable moment to defend. Nevertheless, to survive in the wild, Buck must prove himself worthy to work in the group. Faced with so many difficulties, obstacles, competition and great contrast in life, he doesn’t lose heart, butbranvely keep his psycholoqical balance. His psychological and physical qualities paver the way for his to gain the leadership of among the whole dog pack.
The first and most important spiritual quality of Buck is his strong confidence and unyielding will. Being throw into the harsh condition and far away from the civilized ease and comfort, Buck does not give up but soon learns that he must conform to the Law od Club and fang which represtent absolute power and order. He is almost to be beaten to die but never destroyed, as he knows that he can survive and live a not so bad, as long as his life is confident and tough. These confidence and perseverance inspire him to more on and drive him to go forward. Besides, during the journey, he has a few time to rest, and the food “the pound and a half of sun-dried salmin, which was his ration for each day” is not enough. He edures hunger to work hard for his masters. He pull the sled to convey letters for the gold seekers. Excessive working makes Buck exhausted, but he sticks to his post with unqielding will. Just as Babara White says “ A good leader must have firm confidence and strong will, because the leader’s spirit can motivate, encourage and draws out the trust and best efforts of the team to complete the task well”. As a matter of fact, a leader needs to appear confidence to stimulate other members in the team. A leader who conveys confidence and persistence towards the proposed objective arouse the best effort from team members.
The second spiritual quality of Buck is his temperament and character. On the other hand, Buck’s temperqument is partly from the cultivation in the south and partly from his calm, loyal, respectful and graceful. Judge Miller and his children walk with Buck and tell him what he should do and what he should not. Under the civilized people’s influence, Buck’s temperament is superior to others. He know how to react in different situations. At the same time, Buck is not a coward but a beast to some extent. His double temperaments strengthen his affect on other dogs. It is no surprise that after the death of Spitz, other dogs support Buck to their leader. On the other hand, Buck is strit under the serve living confition, Buck is still strict his suborfiates. Running in the snow-covered and deserted land, they are risking their lives. So many mistake will result in terrible disaster. There is one time that curly does not put his whole heart on pulling the sled and deliberately make the discipline chaotic, Buck bites, punish him mercilessly and gives him an unforgettable lesson. Buck is committed to excellence. Second best does not lead to success. A good leader not only maintains high standards, but also is productive in raising the bar in order to achieve excellence in all areas.
The third spiritual quality of Buck is his strong awareness of competition. From the Law of Club and Fang, and the death of Cury, Buck realizes “survival of the fittest”. In the south, he sits besides the masters’s warm fireplace and listen to people’s talking quietly. In contrast, during the journey, once he went into the master’s home, but was driven out. He has to fight against the cold weather and learn to find a place to fight against toil. As he deeply knows that “success call for hard work, and hard work lead to be a leader”. Only though hard working can he gain the chance to n\be a leader. Buck not only compete with the evil surroundings, but also compete with his fellow Spitz, who often bully and cheat him. One team can only have a leader, Buck finally defeats and skills Spitz in a struggle. From that time on, he voids Spitz’s depression and replaces him to lead the dogs to move on,
3. Buck’s skills as a Leader
The dominant primordial beast is strong in Buck, and under the fierce conditions of trail life it grows. Yet it was secret growth. His newborn canning gives him poise and control. He is too busy to adjust himself to the new life to feel at ease, and not only does he not pick fights, but he avoid them whenever possible. A certain deliberateness characterizes his attitude. He is not prone to rashness and precipitate action; and in the bitter hatred between him and Spitz he betrays on impatience, shuns all offensive acts. Buck’s revolt against Spitz is first of all a matter of strength versus strength. The two dogs are of gigantic size. One will not suumb to the other. In the south, Buck is accustomed to being the head dog at Judge Miller’s estate, and now he has to take a subordinate positition, and it is insulting to his pride. An ultimate confrontation between Buck and Spitz seems inevitable.
Buck is good at making use of incidents that trigger off a war. The first incident is that when the huski dogs steal their food. All dogs have brust from nests and make painful efforts to fight with the huskis to protect their food. To Buck’s anger, Spitz, rather than fight against a commen enemy, uses the opportunity to attack Buck-on two different occasions. The first time occurs when Buck is fighting a wild huskie, and Spitz vicionsly attacks his from one sede; the second time occurs when Spitz rushes upon Buck in the path of the wild huskies, an event which Buck realizes would have meant certain death. Buck now sees Spit’s insidious intention. The second incident is exhausting, Buck stagger along the trail, completely worn out. The nasty tempered Spitz takes Buck’s weakened condition as an opportunity to attack him once more, and twice he tears Buck’ flesh to the bone. Buck can no longer forgive Spitz, and from that time on, it is all-out war between Spitz and Buck.
Bearing this in mind, Buck does not merely attack Spitz head-on; instead, he slyly undercuts Spitz’s authority among the other dogs by siding with the weaker animals indisputes. The canningness that Buck have learned in the wild combined with his superior strength and his newly acquired primeval instincts make Buck the superior animal in what will be a coming, critical contest between him and Spitz.
Buck is more insttehigent and knows how to use wit to give fatal blow on his enemy. Actually speaking, Spitz is the more experienced fighter and is able to ward off most of Buck’s charges. In fact, Buck almost exhausts himself in his repeated, vicious attack, as Spitz slashs Buck’s shoulder, Spitz is for a while, seemingly the superior dog. But just as Buck reaches the point of exchaustion, he uses that “quality that made for greatness-imagination”. Previously, Buck was fighted by instinct, but now he chooses to fight by imagination and intellect. He pretends to make one more half-hearted dash at Spitz’s throat, but, instead, he quickly reverses himself and crunches down on Spitz’s left foreleg, breaking it. After successive tries, repeating the same gestures, Buck is able to break Spitz’s other foreleg. By now, Spitz, is down, and the other dogs begin circling around them, waiting for the kill. In London’s words, “Buck was inezorable. Mercy was a thing reserved for gentle climes”. Thus, the bestial instinct has been proven in Buck’s superiority to Spitz, and after he has defeated Spitz, we see that Buck, a previously highly civilize dog from the south, has now defeated the strong, brave, uncivilized dog from the north. Buck has become, without question, “the dominant primordial beast”, and thus wins the leadership.
3.2. Skills of Efficienty Leading the Whole Dog
At first, Spitz was the leader of the whole dog pack. Spitz is ruthless and unfriendly to anyone who approaches him. As Buck is his major enemy, he usually to bites and attacks Buck. Except
Buck, he also gives other dogs bitter lesson. Due to his cruelty and arrogance, under his latter leadship, most do
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